Muthuraja: Difference between revisions
Content deleted Content added
No edit summary Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit |
Unreliable resources valaiyar vettuva gounder is sub caste of mutharaiyar but relational between muthuraja and them Tag: references removed |
||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{ |
{{About|the Indian caste called Muthuraja||Muttaraiyar (disambiguation){{!}}Muttaraiyar}} |
||
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}} |
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}} |
||
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2016}} |
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2016}} |
||
{{Infobox ethnic group |
{{Infobox ethnic group |
||
| image = |
| image = |
||
| Line 8: | Line 9: | ||
| popplace = [[Tamil Nadu]] |
| popplace = [[Tamil Nadu]] |
||
| languages = [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]]<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=K. M. Venkataramaiah |author2=|title=A handbook of Tamil Nadu |
| languages = [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]]<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=K. M. Venkataramaiah |author2=|title=A handbook of Tamil Nadu |
||
|volume= |publisher= |year=1996|page=425|quote=Muthuracha: A Telugu caste found in some districts of Tamil Nadu, the Muthuracha (muthurācha) is also called Muttaraiyan |
|volume= |publisher= |year=1996|page=425|quote=Muthuracha: A Telugu caste found in some districts of Tamil Nadu, the Muthuracha (muthurācha) is also called Muttaraiyan. Some are talaiyāris or watchmen of villages. They seem to be a major sect in the coastal villages of Andhra Pradesh| url=https://books.google.com/?id=2pAMAQAAMAAJ&dq=Muthuracha%3A+A+Telugu+caste&q=Muthuracha |isbn=9788185692203}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=India. Criminal Tribes Act Enquiry Committee|author2=|title=Report of the Criminal Tribes Act Enquiry Committee, 1949-1950 |
||
|volume= |publisher=Manager of Publications|date=Aug 1951|page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=_4BjwNzPao0C&pg=PA31&dq=mutharachas+Telugu+caste+++Kishtna,+Nellore,+Cuddapah++++North,+Arcot+districts}}</ref> |
|volume= |publisher=Manager of Publications|date=Aug 1951|page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=_4BjwNzPao0C&pg=PA31&dq=mutharachas+Telugu+caste+++Kishtna,+Nellore,+Cuddapah++++North,+Arcot+districts#v=onepage&q=mutharachas%20Telugu%20caste%20%20%20Kishtna%2C%20Nellore%2C%20Cuddapah%20%20%20%20North%2C%20Arcot%20districts&f=false}}</ref> |
||
| religions = [[Hinduism]] |
| religions = [[Hinduism]] |
||
| related-c = [[Mutharaiyar dynasty]] |
| related-c = [[Mutharaiyar dynasty]] |
||
| Line 17: | Line 18: | ||
| classification = [[Backward Class]] |
| classification = [[Backward Class]] |
||
}} |
}} |
||
| ⚫ | '''Muthuraja''' or '''Mutharaiyar''' also known as '''Kudiyaanavar''' , '''Ambalakarar''' is a [[Tamil language|Tamil]] speaking community prevalent in southern India.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xEZuAAAAMAAJ|title=Caste Today|last=Fuller|first=Christopher John|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195637953|location=|pages=72|quote=They all agree that the very name Valaiyar is demeaning, and they tend to reject it accordingly; they have started using the name Mooppanar but this is not yet very widespread. Many people call themselves Ambalakkarars.}}</ref> They were historically [[zamindar]]s and [[landlord]]s.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}} Their primary occupation is [[agriculture]] and [[trade]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ButtAAAAMAAJ|title=The Valayar of South India: Society and religion|last=Setty|first=E. Desingu|date=1990|publisher=Inter-India Publications|isbn=9788121002387|location=|pages=293|language=en}}</ref> The Muthuraja people are the descendants of the [[Mutharaiyar dynasty|Muttaraiyar line of kings]] who ruled the districts of [[Trichy]], [[Thanjavur]] and [[Pudukottai]] between the sixth and the ninth century.<ref name=royaldescent>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=gmdDAAAAYAAJ&q=muthuraja+descendants&dq=muthuraja+descendants|title=Madras District Gazetteers: Tiruchirappalli pt. 1-2)|author=Madras (India : State), B. S. Baliga|page=278|year=1998}}</ref> The Muthuraja people are spread throughout rural area around [[Trichy]] region. The community is mostly distributed in the [[Tiruchirappalli district|Tiruchirappalli]], [[Pudukkottai district|Pudukkottai]], [[Tanjore district|Tanjore]], [[Karur district|Karur]] and [[Perambalur district|Perambalur]] districts of [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1lZuAAAAMAAJ|title=India's Communities|last=Singh|first=Kumar Suresh|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195633542|location=|pages=2426–2429|language=en}}</ref> |
||
'''Muthuraja''' or '''Mutharaiyar''' also known as Muthiriyar/Dheevara<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Thurston|first=Edgar|url=http://archive.org/details/castestribesofso01thuriala|title=Castes and tribes of southern India|last2=Rangachari|first2=K.|date=1909|publisher=Madras : Government Press|others=University of California Libraries|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=26}}</ref><ref name=":2" />, Ambalakarar<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Thurston|first=Edgar|url=http://archive.org/details/castestribesofso07thuriala|title=Castes and tribes of southern India|last2=Rangachari|first2=K.|date=1909|publisher=Madras : Government Press|others=University of California Libraries|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=242}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Fuller|first=Christopher John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xEZuAAAAMAAJ|title=Caste Today|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195637953|location=|pages=72|quote=They all agree that the very name Valaiyar is demeaning, and they tend to reject it accordingly; they have started using the name Mooppanar but this is not yet very widespread. Many people call themselves Ambalakkarars.}}</ref>, Valaiyar<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />, Vettuva Gounder<ref name=":2" />, [[Urali Gounder]]<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />, |
|||
| ⚫ | |||
== Etymology == |
== Etymology == |
||
The etymology of the community name, Mutharaiyar, is unclear. In [[Tamil language|Tamil]], they were called as Muthuraja, Muthurayar |
The etymology of the community name, Mutharaiyar, is unclear. In [[Tamil language|Tamil]], they were called as Muthuraja, Muthurayar etc. while in [[Kannada]] they were called Muttarasa.<ref>{{cite book|title=Epigraphia Indica, Volume 27, Volumes 13-14 of [Reports]: New imperial series, India Archaeological Survey|author=Archaeological Survey of India, India. Dept. of Archaeology|publisher=Manager of Publications, 1985|page=223}}</ref> One theory is that it may be derived from ''Mu'' or ''Mundru'' meaning "three" and ''tharai'' meaning "earth", that is roughly translated as ''People of three territories''. It may also mean ''Lord of three territories'' as ''araiyar'' also meant king.<ref>{{cite book|title=Journal of Ancient Indian History, Volume 5|publisher=D.C. Sircar, 1972 - India|author=University of Calcutta. Dept. of Ancient Indian History and Culture|page=78}}</ref><ref>Journal of Indian history, Volume 19, page 40</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tamilvu.org/library/ldpam/ldpam07/ldpam072/html/ldpam072ind.htm|title=A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Tamil Language|last=|first=|date=|website=www.tamilvu.org|publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu|page=200|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2018-12-03}}</ref> The word ''Muthi'' also means ''old'' so according to some scholars, their name could also mean ''Princes of 3 territories''.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Kalabhras in the Pandiya country and their impact on the life and letters there|author=M. Arunachalam|publisher=University of Madras, 1979 - Kalabhras - 168 pages|page=38}}</ref> One of their titles was ''Lord of Tanjore''.<ref>{{cite book |title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Classical Age |editor-first=Ramesh Chandra |editor-last=Majumdar |publisher=G. Allen & Unwin |year=1954 |page=266 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532401}}</ref> Some of the chiefs of the Muttaraiyar family used the title ''Maaran'' like Kuvavan Maaran, Suvaran Maaran, Maaran Parameswaran etc.<ref>{{cite book|title=History of Kongu, Volume 1|author=V. Ramamurthy|publisher=International Society for the Investigation of Ancient Civilization, 1986 - Kongu Region (India)|page=232}}</ref> |
||
They are commonly known as ''KaavalKarar'', derived from [[Tamil language|Tamil]] word ''Kaaval'' meaning "protect" in reference to their earlier occupations as village guards and soldiers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kkppAgAAQBAJ|title=Sacred Groves and Local Gods: Religion and Environmentalism in South India|last=Kent|first=Eliza F.|date=2013-03-26|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199895472|location=|pages=33–34|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9uHkAAAAMAAJ|title=Annual Convocation ... Handbook of Research Activities|last=Delhi|first=University of|date=1991|publisher=University of Delhi|isbn=|location=|pages=293|language=en}}</ref> Their title ''Ambalakkarar'' is derived from the Tamil word ''ambalam'' meaning [[Gram panchayat|panchayat]] or "village council", as they served as the heads of these councils.<ref name=":0" /> |
They are commonly known as ''KaavalKarar'', derived from [[Tamil language|Tamil]] word ''Kaaval'' meaning "protect" in reference to their earlier occupations as village guards and soldiers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kkppAgAAQBAJ|title=Sacred Groves and Local Gods: Religion and Environmentalism in South India|last=Kent|first=Eliza F.|date=2013-03-26|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199895472|location=|pages=33–34|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9uHkAAAAMAAJ|title=Annual Convocation ... Handbook of Research Activities|last=Delhi|first=University of|date=1991|publisher=University of Delhi|isbn=|location=|pages=293|language=en}}</ref> Their title ''Ambalakkarar'' is derived from the Tamil word ''ambalam'' meaning [[Gram panchayat|panchayat]] or "village council", as they served as the heads of these councils.<ref name=":0" /> |
||
==Origin== |
==Origin== |
||
According to Tamil historians, the |
According to Tamil historians, the Muttarayar are said to have invaded kingdoms in [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamilakkam]] around the 2nd century CE from '''Erumainadu''', which is identified with the area in and around modern [[Mysore]] in Karnataka.<ref name=erumainad>{{cite book|title=Bulletin, Volume 3, Issue 2|author=Anthropological Survey of India|publisher=India. Dept. of Anthropology|page=8}}</ref> They seem to have established themselves as Lords of the Tanjore district in Tamilakkam around this time. The most famous of the dynasty were [[Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar]], also called Kuvavan Maaran, his son Maaran Parameswaran, alias Ilangovadiaraiyan, and [[Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar II]], alias Suvaran Maaran.<ref>{{cite book|title=Feudatories of South India, 800-1070 A.D.|author=Ve Pālāmpāḷ|publisher=Chugh Publications |year=1978|page=135}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Hero-stones in Tamilnadu|author=Naṭan̲a Kācinātan̲|publisher=Arun Publications |year=1978|page=20}}</ref> |
||
During the 7th to 8th centuries, they served as feudatories of the [[Pallava]]s and controlled the fertile plains of the Kaveri region. An inscription in the [[Tiru Parameswara Vinnagaram|Vaikuntha Perumal temple]] in Kanchipuram mentions a Muttaraiyar chief receiving [[Nandivarman II]] Pallavamalla at the latter's coronation.<ref>{{cite book|title=Geographical Names in Ancient Indian Inscriptions|author=Parmanand Gupta|publisher=Concept Publishing Company, 1977 - India - 176 pages|page=55}}</ref> According to historian T. A. Gopinatha Rao, this chief was Perumbidigu Muthurayar II,<ref>{{cite book|title=Social and cultural history of Tamilnad, Volume 1|author=N. Subrahmanian|publisher=Ennes |year=1993|page=66}}</ref> who is styled as Kalvara Kalvan in this epigraph.<ref>{{cite book|title=Geographical Names in Ancient Indian Inscriptions|author=Parmanand Gupta|publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1977|page=55}}</ref> According to historian Mahalingam, he fought along with Udayachandra, the Pallava general of Nandivarman II, in at least twelve battles against the [[Chera]]s and [[Pandya]]s.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Body of God: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram |
During the 7th to 8th centuries, they served as feudatories of the [[Pallava]]s and controlled the fertile plains of the Kaveri region. An inscription in the [[Tiru Parameswara Vinnagaram|Vaikuntha Perumal temple]] in Kanchipuram mentions a Muttaraiyar chief receiving [[Nandivarman II]] Pallavamalla at the latter's coronation.<ref>{{cite book|title=Geographical Names in Ancient Indian Inscriptions|author=Parmanand Gupta|publisher=Concept Publishing Company, 1977 - India - 176 pages|page=55}}</ref> According to historian T. A. Gopinatha Rao, this chief was Perumbidigu Muthurayar II,<ref>{{cite book|title=Social and cultural history of Tamilnad, Volume 1|author=N. Subrahmanian|publisher=Ennes |year=1993|page=66}}</ref> who is styled as Kalvara Kalvan in this epigraph.<ref>{{cite book|title=Geographical Names in Ancient Indian Inscriptions|author=Parmanand Gupta|publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1977|page=55}}</ref> According to historian Mahalingam, he fought along with Udayachandra, the Pallava general of Nandivarman II, in at least twelve battles against the [[Chera]]s and [[Pandya]]s.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Body of God: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram|author=D Dennis Hudson|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008|page=541}}</ref> |
||
The [[Jeyankondanilai|Sendalai]] inscription of Perumbidigu Muthurayar II states that Tanjore and Vallam were under his control.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sources of the history of India, Volume 3|author=Siba Pada Sen|publisher=Institute of Historical Studies |year=1980|page=342}}</ref> When the medieval Cholas came to power in 850, [[Vijayalaya Chola]] wrested control of Tanjore from the Muthuraja chieftains and turned them into vassals.<ref>{{cite book|title=The political structure of early medieval South India|author=Kesavan Veluthat|publisher=Orient Longman, 1993|page=112}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Journal of Indian History, Volumes 19-20|author1=University of Allahabad. Department of Modern Indian History |author2=University of Kerala. Dept. of History, University of Kerala|page=40}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Indian History|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|page=B55}}</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=January 2019}} |
The [[Jeyankondanilai|Sendalai]] inscription of Perumbidigu Muthurayar II states that Tanjore and Vallam were under his control.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sources of the history of India, Volume 3|author=Siba Pada Sen|publisher=Institute of Historical Studies |year=1980|page=342}}</ref> When the medieval Cholas came to power in 850, [[Vijayalaya Chola]] wrested control of Tanjore from the Muthuraja chieftains and turned them into vassals.<ref>{{cite book|title=The political structure of early medieval South India|author=Kesavan Veluthat|publisher=Orient Longman, 1993|page=112}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Journal of Indian History, Volumes 19-20|author1=University of Allahabad. Department of Modern Indian History |author2=University of Kerala. Dept. of History, University of Kerala|page=40}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Indian History|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|page=B55}}</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=January 2019}} |
||
| Line 38: | Line 37: | ||
== Literature == |
== Literature == |
||
One of the most notable Muthuraja people was Peru Mutharaiyar, who was known for his great wealth and grand feasts. Two stanzas (200, 296) of ''[[Nālaṭiyār]]'', a [[Jainism|Jain]] work of ancient [[Tamil literature]], is dedicated to him.<ref>{{cite book|title=Studies in South Indian Jainism: South Indian Jainism|author=M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar, B. Seshagiri Rao|publisher=Sri Satguru Publications |year=1982|page=56}}</ref> Another work called ''Muttolaayiram'' which is part of the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] anthology lauds the exploits of the Mutturaja chieftains.<ref name= |
One of the most notable Muthuraja people was Peru Mutharaiyar, who was known for his great wealth and grand feasts. Two stanzas (200, 296) of ''[[Nālaṭiyār]]'', a [[Jainism|Jain]] work of ancient [[Tamil literature]], is dedicated to him.<ref>{{cite book|title=Studies in South Indian Jainism: South Indian Jainism|author=M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar, B. Seshagiri Rao|publisher=Sri Satguru Publications |year=1982|page=56}}</ref> Another work called ''Muttolaayiram'' which is part of the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] anthology lauds the exploits of the Mutturaja chieftains.<ref name=erumainad/> |
||
==[[Paluvettaraiyar]] regiment== |
==[[Paluvettaraiyar]] regiment== |
||
[[File:Paluvettaraiyar.JPG|thumb|right|Paluvettaraiyar temple in Melapalur, Ariyalur dt]] |
[[File:Paluvettaraiyar.JPG|thumb|right|Paluvettaraiyar temple in Melapalur, Ariyalur dt]] |
||
The Paluvettaraiyar regiment was a military regiment maintained by the Mutharaja chief [[Paluvettaraiyar]]. It comprised both Muthuraja and |
The Paluvettaraiyar regiment was a military regiment maintained by the Mutharaja chief [[Paluvettaraiyar]]. It comprised both Muthuraja and Sengunthar soldiers<ref>{{cite book|title=Textiles and weavers in medieval South India|author=Ramaswamy, V.|date=1985|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=2015-04-05}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2016}} in the regiment of Paluvettaraiyar and were involved in the invasion of [[Ceylon|Lanka]] by Cholas in the 10th century.<ref>Studies in Indian epigraphy, Volumes 26–27</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2016}}<ref>Historical perspectives of warfare in India: some morale and matérial determinants By Sri Nandan Prasad, Centre for Studies in Civilizations (Delhi, India)</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2016}} |
||
==See also== |
==See also== |
||
Revision as of 14:59, 14 June 2020
| Regions with significant populations | |
|---|---|
| Tamil Nadu | |
| Languages | |
| Tamil, Telugu[1][2] | |
| Religion | |
| Hinduism | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Mutharaiyar dynasty |
Muthuraja or Mutharaiyar also known as Kudiyaanavar , Ambalakarar is a Tamil speaking community prevalent in southern India.[3] They were historically zamindars and landlords.[citation needed] Their primary occupation is agriculture and trade.[4] The Muthuraja people are the descendants of the Muttaraiyar line of kings who ruled the districts of Trichy, Thanjavur and Pudukottai between the sixth and the ninth century.[5] The Muthuraja people are spread throughout rural area around Trichy region. The community is mostly distributed in the Tiruchirappalli, Pudukkottai, Tanjore, Karur and Perambalur districts of Tamil Nadu.[6]
Etymology
The etymology of the community name, Mutharaiyar, is unclear. In Tamil, they were called as Muthuraja, Muthurayar etc. while in Kannada they were called Muttarasa.[7] One theory is that it may be derived from Mu or Mundru meaning "three" and tharai meaning "earth", that is roughly translated as People of three territories. It may also mean Lord of three territories as araiyar also meant king.[8][9][10] The word Muthi also means old so according to some scholars, their name could also mean Princes of 3 territories.[11] One of their titles was Lord of Tanjore.[12] Some of the chiefs of the Muttaraiyar family used the title Maaran like Kuvavan Maaran, Suvaran Maaran, Maaran Parameswaran etc.[13]
They are commonly known as KaavalKarar, derived from Tamil word Kaaval meaning "protect" in reference to their earlier occupations as village guards and soldiers.[14][15] Their title Ambalakkarar is derived from the Tamil word ambalam meaning panchayat or "village council", as they served as the heads of these councils.[14]
Origin
According to Tamil historians, the Muttarayar are said to have invaded kingdoms in Tamilakkam around the 2nd century CE from Erumainadu, which is identified with the area in and around modern Mysore in Karnataka.[16] They seem to have established themselves as Lords of the Tanjore district in Tamilakkam around this time. The most famous of the dynasty were Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar, also called Kuvavan Maaran, his son Maaran Parameswaran, alias Ilangovadiaraiyan, and Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar II, alias Suvaran Maaran.[17][18]
During the 7th to 8th centuries, they served as feudatories of the Pallavas and controlled the fertile plains of the Kaveri region. An inscription in the Vaikuntha Perumal temple in Kanchipuram mentions a Muttaraiyar chief receiving Nandivarman II Pallavamalla at the latter's coronation.[19] According to historian T. A. Gopinatha Rao, this chief was Perumbidigu Muthurayar II,[20] who is styled as Kalvara Kalvan in this epigraph.[21] According to historian Mahalingam, he fought along with Udayachandra, the Pallava general of Nandivarman II, in at least twelve battles against the Cheras and Pandyas.[22]
The Sendalai inscription of Perumbidigu Muthurayar II states that Tanjore and Vallam were under his control.[23] When the medieval Cholas came to power in 850, Vijayalaya Chola wrested control of Tanjore from the Muthuraja chieftains and turned them into vassals.[24][25][26][full citation needed]
The early rulers of the dynasty seem to have encouraged Jainism. The Jain acharya Vimalachandra from Sravanabelagola is said to have visited Suvaran Maaran's court and challenged the Saivas, Kapalikas, Pasupatas and Buddhists.[27]
During the post Vijayanagar era many of the soldiers and poligars were drawn from the ranks of the Muthuraja community.[28]
Literature
One of the most notable Muthuraja people was Peru Mutharaiyar, who was known for his great wealth and grand feasts. Two stanzas (200, 296) of Nālaṭiyār, a Jain work of ancient Tamil literature, is dedicated to him.[29] Another work called Muttolaayiram which is part of the Tamil anthology lauds the exploits of the Mutturaja chieftains.[16]
Paluvettaraiyar regiment
The Paluvettaraiyar regiment was a military regiment maintained by the Mutharaja chief Paluvettaraiyar. It comprised both Muthuraja and Sengunthar soldiers[30][page needed] in the regiment of Paluvettaraiyar and were involved in the invasion of Lanka by Cholas in the 10th century.[31][page needed][32][page needed]
See also
References
- ^ K. M. Venkataramaiah, ed. (1996). A handbook of Tamil Nadu. p. 425. ISBN 9788185692203.
Muthuracha: A Telugu caste found in some districts of Tamil Nadu, the Muthuracha (muthurācha) is also called Muttaraiyan. Some are talaiyāris or watchmen of villages. They seem to be a major sect in the coastal villages of Andhra Pradesh
- ^ India. Criminal Tribes Act Enquiry Committee, ed. (August 1951). Report of the Criminal Tribes Act Enquiry Committee, 1949-1950. Manager of Publications. p. 31.
- ^ Fuller, Christopher John (1996). Caste Today. Oxford University Press. p. 72. ISBN 9780195637953.
They all agree that the very name Valaiyar is demeaning, and they tend to reject it accordingly; they have started using the name Mooppanar but this is not yet very widespread. Many people call themselves Ambalakkarars.
- ^ Setty, E. Desingu (1990). The Valayar of South India: Society and religion. Inter-India Publications. p. 293. ISBN 9788121002387.
- ^ Madras (India : State), B. S. Baliga (1998). Madras District Gazetteers: Tiruchirappalli pt. 1-2). p. 278.
- ^ Singh, Kumar Suresh (1998). India's Communities. Oxford University Press. pp. 2426–2429. ISBN 9780195633542.
- ^ Archaeological Survey of India, India. Dept. of Archaeology. Epigraphia Indica, Volume 27, Volumes 13-14 of [Reports]: New imperial series, India Archaeological Survey. Manager of Publications, 1985. p. 223.
- ^ University of Calcutta. Dept. of Ancient Indian History and Culture. Journal of Ancient Indian History, Volume 5. D.C. Sircar, 1972 - India. p. 78.
- ^ Journal of Indian history, Volume 19, page 40
- ^ "A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Tamil Language". www.tamilvu.org. Government of Tamil Nadu. p. 200. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
- ^ M. Arunachalam. The Kalabhras in the Pandiya country and their impact on the life and letters there. University of Madras, 1979 - Kalabhras - 168 pages. p. 38.
- ^ Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra, ed. (1954). The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Classical Age. G. Allen & Unwin. p. 266.
- ^ V. Ramamurthy. History of Kongu, Volume 1. International Society for the Investigation of Ancient Civilization, 1986 - Kongu Region (India). p. 232.
- ^ a b Kent, Eliza F. (26 March 2013). Sacred Groves and Local Gods: Religion and Environmentalism in South India. Oxford University Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN 9780199895472.
- ^ Delhi, University of (1991). Annual Convocation ... Handbook of Research Activities. University of Delhi. p. 293.
- ^ a b Anthropological Survey of India. Bulletin, Volume 3, Issue 2. India. Dept. of Anthropology. p. 8.
- ^ Ve Pālāmpāḷ (1978). Feudatories of South India, 800-1070 A.D. Chugh Publications. p. 135.
- ^ Naṭan̲a Kācinātan̲ (1978). Hero-stones in Tamilnadu. Arun Publications. p. 20.
- ^ Parmanand Gupta. Geographical Names in Ancient Indian Inscriptions. Concept Publishing Company, 1977 - India - 176 pages. p. 55.
- ^ N. Subrahmanian (1993). Social and cultural history of Tamilnad, Volume 1. Ennes. p. 66.
- ^ Parmanand Gupta (1977). Geographical Names in Ancient Indian Inscriptions. Concept Publishing Company. p. 55.
- ^ D Dennis Hudson (2008). The Body of God: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram. Oxford University Press. p. 541.
- ^ Siba Pada Sen (1980). Sources of the history of India, Volume 3. Institute of Historical Studies. p. 342.
- ^ Kesavan Veluthat. The political structure of early medieval South India. Orient Longman, 1993. p. 112.
- ^ University of Allahabad. Department of Modern Indian History; University of Kerala. Dept. of History, University of Kerala. Journal of Indian History, Volumes 19-20. p. 40.
- ^ Indian History. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. B55.
- ^ H.S. Bhatia. Political, Legal And War Philosophy In Ancient India. Deep and Deep Publications, 2001. p. 180.
- ^ Venkatesh B. Athreya; Göran Djurfeldt; Staffan Lindberg. Barriers broken: production relations and agrarian change in Tamil Nadu. Sage Publications, 1990. p. 25.
- ^ M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar, B. Seshagiri Rao (1982). Studies in South Indian Jainism: South Indian Jainism. Sri Satguru Publications. p. 56.
- ^ Ramaswamy, V. (1985). Textiles and weavers in medieval South India. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 5 April 2015.
- ^ Studies in Indian epigraphy, Volumes 26–27
- ^ Historical perspectives of warfare in India: some morale and matérial determinants By Sri Nandan Prasad, Centre for Studies in Civilizations (Delhi, India)