Talk:The Buddha/Tertiary sources
This page lists reliable tertiary sources that are about the founder of Buddhism, and includes brief excerpts to show how they refer to him. Chief names found are Gautama Buddha (also Gotama), Siddartha (in various combinations), and the Buddha (or Buddha).
Introduction
[edit]According to article title policy, "Wikipedia does not necessarily use the subject's "official" name as an article title; it generally prefers the name that is most commonly used (as determined by its prevalence in a significant majority of independent, reliable English-language sources)." When the literature about a topic is vast, it may be difficult to determine the common name.
Tertiary sources are references like encyclopedias or dictionaries, and are are especially valuable in determining questions of due weight, such as reflecting the majority view of secondary sources. As such, they may be a good proxy for resolving the question about the majority view of secondary sources on the naming question.
In the lists below, all entries are anchored, so in order to refer to any of these entries from a Talk page, just link it (like this: Talk:Gautama Buddha/Tertiary sources#Encyclopedia of Religion) and your link should go to the right place. Feel free to add more tertiary sources; see § Scope and methodology below to see what qualifies as on-topic for this page.
Explanatory notes in small italic font like this follow the tertiary source content they apply to. They are "buttnotes", not hatnotes.
Encyclopedias
[edit]Academic American Encyclopedia 1995
- Buddha. The word Buddha is a general term meaning one who is enlightened or awakened. It is primarily applied to the historical founder of Buddhism, a prince of a small kingdom spanning northern India and Nepal, who was known as Sakyamuni, which means "the silent sage of the Sakya tribe", and Gautama, his clan name. His personal name was Siddartha, "he who will accomplish". Legend and controversy shround Siddartha's life. The core of accepted beliefs derive from traditions current during the reign of the Buddhist emperor Asoka about three centuries after Buddha's life (c. 560 to 480 BC).[1]
- Gautama, Siddartha see Buddha.[2]
A Concise Encyclopedia of Buddhism 2013
- Siddhārta Gautama According to Buddhist tradition, this is the given name of Sākyamuni Buddha. He was the son of Suddhodana, king of Kapilavastu, and his wife Māyā.[3]
- buddha (Pāli buddha; Tib. sangs rgyas; Chin. fo; Jpn. butsu; awakened one) An epithet of those who successfully break the hold of ignorance, liberate themselves from cyclic existence, and teach others the path to liberation. [...] The buddha of the current era is referred to as "Sākyamuni" (Sage of the Sākyas"). He was born Siddhārta Gautama, a member of the Sākya clan.[4]
American Desk Encyclopedia 1998
- Buddha (Enlightened one) Title adopted by Gautama Siddhartha (c.563–c.483 bc), the founder of Buddhism. Born at Lumbini, Nepal, Siddhartha was son of the ruler of the Sakya tribe, and his early years were spent in luxury. At the age of 29, he realized that human life is little more than suffering. He gave up his wealth and comfort, deserted his wife and small son, and took to the road as a wandering ascetic. He sought truth in a six-year regime of austerity and self-mortification.
- After abandoning asceticism as futile, he sought his own middle way towards enlightenment. The moment of truth came (c.528 BC) as he sat beneath a banyan tree in the village of Buddha Gaya, Bihar, India. After this, he taught others about his way to truth. The title "buddha" applies to those who have achieved perfect enlightenment. Buddhists believe that there have been several buddhas before Siddhartha, and there will be many to come. The term also serves to describe a variety of Buddha images.[5]
- compare World Encyclopedia below
An Encyclopædia of Religion 1943
- Buddhist Terminology [6]
- Buddha, Gotama [subsection] It is difficult to distinguish facts from fiction about a man who was one of the greatest ever to have lived on this earth and who has influenced the life and thought of more than half the human race. Because of the nobility of his character, the vastness of his vision, the depth of his compassion, and the profundity of his teachings, idealization of his life was inevitable.[7] [more]
- not to be confused with § An Encyclopaedia of Religions immediately following, or with § Encyclopedia of Religion further below
An Encyclopaedia of Religions 1921
- BUDDHISM The religion founded by Gautama, afterward called the Buddha, who seems to have been born about 567 B.C.[8][more; full text available; no separate entry for 'Buddha', or for 'Gautama'.]
Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy 1997
- The Buddha (chapter)
- The Buddha is the typical title given to Siddartha Gautama, founder or re-founder of the Buddhist tradition. It is among a number of epithets assigned to Gautama and to some other spiritual leaders of the period. The term means 'awakened one' or 'enlightened one' and is related to the word bodhi, meaning 'awakening' or 'enlightenment'. The latter expression has become the favorite translation of the word in modern English. Siddartha was his given name, and Gautama his family or clan name.[9]
- Buddha usual title given to the founder of buddhism. He is also called the Tathagata [he who has come thus], Bhagavat [the Lord], and Sugata [well-gone]. He probably lived from 563 to 483 B.C. [...][10]
- BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM Buddhism, one of the world's great religions, is practiced today throughout East and Southeast Asia...[remainder of lead paragraph omitted]
- Buddhism began in India in the 6th century B.C. with the birth of the founder, Siddartha Gautama, the son of a local ruler of a kingdom on the western slopes of the Himalaya. The religion Gautama preached was a kind of protestantism aimed against the religious-social monopoly of the Brahmanic caste of priests (see Brahmanism) who long had held as their special domain the proper ordering of the cosmos, which they alone, as proprietors of the cosmic law (dharma), were qualified to oversee.[11]
Encyclopædia Britannica (1911) 11th ed 1911
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png)
- BUDDHA. According to the Buddhist theory (see Buddhism), a "Buddha" appears from time to time in the world and preaches the true doctrine. After a certain lapse of time this teaching is corrupted and lost, and is not restored till a new Buddha appears. In Europe, Buddha is used to designate the last historical Buddha, whose family name was Gotama, and who was the son of Suddhōdana, one of the chiefs of the tribe of the Sākiyas, one of the republican clans then still existent in India.[12] [fulltext available online via Wiksource]
Encyclopædia Britannica 2010 (15th ed)
- Buddha, original name gautama, also called siddārtha (fl. c.6th–4th century BC; b. Kapilavastu, Sākya Republic, Kosala Kingdom [India]—d. Kusinārā, Malla republic, Magadha kingdom [India]) founder of Buddhism, the religion and philosophical system that produced a great culture throughout much of southern and eastern Asia.[13]
- Gautama: see Buddha. [14]
- The Buddha and Buddhism Buddhism is a pan-Asian religion that has played a central role in the spiritual, cultural, and social life of the Eastern world, and...[15] [more]
- (section) the life of the buddha Buddha (Sanskrit: "awakened one") is one of the epithets of a teacher who flourished in northern India sometime between the 6th and 4th century before the Common Era. His followers, known as Buddhists, propagated the religion that is known today as Buddhism.
- full text available at Archive.org
compare § Encyclopædia Britannica online
- full text available at Archive.org
Encyclopedia of Biography 1997
- Buddha 'enlightened one'. Title of Prince Gautama Siddhārta (c. 563–483 BC). Religious leader, founder of Buddhism, born at Lumbini in Nepal. At the age of 29 he left his wife and sone and a life of luxury, to escape from the material burderns of exitence. After six years of austerity he realized that asceticism, like overindulgence, was futile, and chose the middle way of meditation. He became enightened under a bo, or bodhi, tree near Buddh Gaya in Bihar, India. He began teaching at Varanasi, and founded the Sangha, or order of monks. He spent the rest of his life travelling around N India, and died at Kusinagara in Uttar Pradesh.[16]
- Gautama family name of the historical ⇨ Buddha.[17]
- identical or nearly so, to § HarperCollins Dictionary of Biography
Encyclopedia of Religion 2005
- BUDDHA. Etymologically, the Sanskrit/Pali word buddha means "one who has awakened"; in the context of Indian religions it is used as an honorific title for an individual who is enlightened. This metaphor indicates the change in consciousness that, according to Buddhism, is always characteristic of enlightenment. It suggests the otherness and splendor associated with those named by this epithet in various Buddhist traditions.[18]
- not to be confused with § An Encyclopedia of Religion above
identical or near-identical language in § Encyclopedia of Religion online below
Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics 1910
- BUDDHA, LIFE OF THE.—Gautama, the Buddha, (Pāli Gotama), the founder of the Buddhist faith, which at one time numbered in all probability more adherents than any other form of religious belief, was born in or about the year 560 B.C. in the Lumbini Grove, near the ancient town of Kapilavastu, the ruins of which lie hidden beyond the British border in the dense tarai region of south Nepāl, a few miles north of the Basti district, of the United Provinces.[much more...][19]
- Gautama. See BUDDHA.[20]
Encyclopedia of Religion and Religions 1951
- BUDDHA (c. 563-c.483 B.C.). The founder of Buddhism. He was born at Lumbini, near the town of Kapilavastu (Kapilavatthu) i sourthern Nepal, about 100 miles north of Benares, and was the Suddhodana, a "king", i.e., petty prince or rajah, of the Sakyas, and his wife Maya. [more][21]
- Gautama or Gotama. An ancient Hindu sage, founder of the Nyaya (q.v.) school of philosophy. The name is a common one, and was the clan name of Buddha (q.v.).[22]
- The Gautama above refers to a sage from the 1st c. CE; see § Chambers Biographical Dictionary below.
Encyclopedia of World Biography 1998 vol. 3
- The Buddha
- Bolded subtitle; unbolded here for ease of reading: The Buddha (ca. 560-480 B.C.) was an Indian philosopher, religious teacher, and the historical founder of Buddhism. He is regarded variously as human spiritual teacher or an omniscient, active deity.[23]
Encyclopedia of World Religions 2008
- BUDDHISM
- A pan-Asian religion and philosophy, Buddhism was founded by Siddhārtha Gotama in northeast India about the 5th century BCE. Buddhism has played a central role in the Eastern world and during the 20th century has spread to the West.
- The Buddha's message
- The teaching attributed to the buddha gotama wwas transitted orally by his disciples, prefaced by the phrase, "Evam me sutam" ("Thus have I heard"); therefore, it is difficult to say whether his discourses were related as they were spoken. An attempt was made by Buddhist councils in the first centuries after the Buddha's death to establish his true and original teachings.
- It may be said that the Buddha based his entire teaching on the fact of human suffering. Existence is painful. The conditions that make an individual are precisely those that also give rise to suffering. Individuality implies limitation; limitation gives rise to desire; and, inevitably, desire causes suffering, since what is desired is transitory, changing, and perishing. It is the impermanence of the object of craving that causes disappointment and sorrow. By following the "path" taught by the Buddha, the individual can dispel the "ignorance" that perpetuates this suffering. The Buddha's doctrine was not one of despair. Living amid the impermanence of everything and being themselves impermanent, humans search for the way of deliverance, for that which shines beyond the transitoriness of human existence—in short for enlightenment.[24]
Great Soviet Encyclopedia 1973
- Buddha (in Sanskrit, literally :the Enlightened One"), according to the Buddhist religion, a being who has attained highest sanctity. There is a plurality of Buddhas in the Buddhist pantheon. In a narrower sense, "Buddha" is a name for Siddartha Gautama, who, according to Buddhist tradition, was the founder of Buddhism and lived from 623 to 544 B.C. or 60 years later. According to Buddhist tradition, he came from a royal family of the clan of Gotama—hence his family name of Gautama—of the Shakya tribe, which lived in northern India at the southern border of present-day Nepal.[25] [more]
International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences 1968
- Note: There is no 'Buddha' entry, but the following is found under 'Buddhism', and after two pages of intro, there is a section on the Buddha.
- BUDDHISM "Buddhism" is a western term for the immensely diverse system of beliefs and practices centered on the teachings and person of the historical Buddha, who enunciated his message of salvation in India over two millenia ago.[26] [more: this intro goes on for two pages, followed by this subsection:]
- The Buddha and his teachings. Efforts to reconstruct the life and teachings of the Buddha and the institutions of the earliest Buddhist community run aground on many refractory critical problems. But the Buddha's life story, overlaid in its many versions with legend and myth, is nevertheless persuasive in basic outline. The historical Buddha ("enlightened one"), named Siddartha Gautama, was born a prince of an indigenous Indian clan in northern India about 550 B.C.[27] [more]
Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions 1999
- Buddha Gotama clan name Gotama, also called Siddārtha, (fl. 6th–4th c. bce; b. Lumbini, near Kapilavastu, Kosala Kingdom [India]—d. Kusinara, Malla Republic, Maghda kingdom [India]), founder of buddhism. The term buddha, literally meaning "awakened one" or "enlightented one", is not a proper name but rather a title, and Buddhists traditionally believe that there will be innumerable buddhas in the future as there have been in the past, and that there are other buddhas in presently existing cosmos as well. The Buddha who belongs to the present era of the cosmos in which we are living is often referred to as Gotama. When the term the Buddha is used, it is generally assumed that it refers to the Buddha Gotama.... The Buddha was born in the 6th or 5th century bce in the kingdom of the Sākyas, on the borders of present-day Nepal and India. Gotama is said to have been born of the king and queen of the Sākyas, Suddhodna, and mahāmāyā. The Buddha's legend however, begins with an account of a dream that his mother Mahāmāyā had one night before he was born...[28]
Webster's New Explorer Desk Encyclopedia
- Buddha orig. Siddharta Gautama (fl.c.6th–4th cent. B.C.) Indian spiritual leader and founder of buddhism. The term Buddha (Sanskrit: "Elightened One") is a title rather than a name, and Buddhists believe that there are an infinite number of past and future buddhas. The historical Buddha, or Buddha Gautama, was born a prince on the India–Nepal border. His sheltered life of luxury was interrupted when he left the palace and encountered an old man, a sick man, and a corpse. Renouncing his princely life, he spent seven years seeking out teachers and trying various ascetic practices, including fasting, to gain enlightenment. Unsatisfied with the results, he meditated beneath the bodhi tree, where, after temptations by mara, he realized the four noble truths and achieved enlightenment. His eightfold-path offered a middle way between self-indulgence and self-mortification and led to the liberation of nirvana.[29]
- Buddha, BOO duh (563?-483? B.C.) is the title given to the founder of Buddhism, one of the world's great religions. The Buddha's name was Siddartha Gautama. The title Buddha means Enlightened One. [more; one column of text][a]
- Gautama. See Buddha.[b]
Dictionaries
[edit]Chambers Biographical Dictionary 1997
- (in boxed panel at top of page) Buddha ('the enlightened one') c.563–c.483BC
- with subtitle:The title of Prince Gautama Siddartha, the founder of Buddhism
- Buddha was born the son of the rajah of the Sakya tribe ruling in Kapilavastu, 100 miles (160km) north of Benares, in Nepal. When about 30 years old, he left the luxuries of the court, his beautiful wife, and all earthly ambitions in exchange for the life of an ascetic; after six years of extreme self-mortification he saw in the contemplative life the perfect way to self-enlightenment.[30]
- Gautama also known as Gotama 1st cenutry AD Indian philosopher
- Born in Bihar, he founded Nyaya, one of the six classical systems of Hindu philosophy. (needless to say, this is not the founder of Buddhism)[31]
- very similar to § Houghton Mifflin Dictionary of Biography (2003)
A Dictionary of Buddhism 2004
- Buddha (Skt.; Pāli). This is not a personal name but an epithet of those who have achieved enlightenment (*bodhi), the goal of the Buddhist religious life. Buddha comes from the *Sanskrit root 'budh', meaning to awaken, and the Buddhas are those who have awakened to the true nature of things as taught in the *Four Noble Truths.[32]
- Gautama (Pāli, Gotama) Name of the clan to which the *Buddha belonged. Sometimes he is referred to simply by this name, particularly in *Pali sources and also in some of the Dirgha *Agama sutras. See also siddartha gautama.[33]
- Siddharta Gautama (c. 485–405 BCE) (Skt.; Pāli, Siddattha Gotama). Name of the historical *Buddha. Siddharta (meaning 'one whose aim is accomplished') was his personal name, and Gautama his clan or family name. His dates are still uncertain, but recent scholarship inclines to the dates shown as opposed to the more conventional ones of 563–486 BCE (see date of the buddha). He was born into a noble family of the Sākya clan, and for this reason came to be known also as Sākyamuni (the sage of the Sākyas).[34]
A Dictionary of Comparative Religion 1970
- Buddha (as generic title) in Buddh. thought, an 'enlightened one', or 'awakened one', and thus a man distinguished from all others by knowledge of the Truth (dhamma). As P.T.S. Dictionary points out, Buddha is an appellative, not a proper name. In Buddh. theory, the perfect knowledge, made known by a Buddha, eventually becomes lost to world, and has then to await emergence of a new Buddha, in order to be known and proclaimed again.
- after some more text, some in-line subsections follow; first is Gotama:
- (Gotama) (Gautama-Skt.) Concerning dates and life-story of Gotama, the Buddha, there is no hist. certainty. Not until ⟶ Asvaghosa, in 1st/2nd cent. CE, composed his ⟶ Buddhacarita (Acts of the Buddha) was a comprehensive account of his life produced. [...] He was of the Gotama-clan, and his personal name is Siddhatta (same as that of 16th of preceding 24 of the preceding Buddhas ⟶ Buddhas (other than Gotama). Thus he was known, by personal and clan name together, as Siddhatta Gotama. (Skt. Siddhatta Gautama.) He was known also as the 'sage' (muni) of the Sakya tribe, i.e., Sakyamuni.[35]
- Gotama (Pali); Gautama (Skt.); ⟶ Buddha, Gotama. t.o.l.[36]
The HarperCollins Dictionary of Biography
- Buddha 'Enlightened One', title of Prince Gautama Siddārtha c. 563-483 BC. Religious leader, founder of Buddhism, born at Lumbini in Nepal.[37]
- remainder not shown; content identical to § Encyclopedia of Biography.
- Gautama family name of the historical ⇨ Buddha[38][page needed]
The Houghton Mifflin Dictionary of Biography 2003
- (as boxed panel at top of page) Buddha ('the enlightened one') c.563–c.483 BC[39]
- with subtitle:The title of Prince Gautama Siddartha, the founder of Buddhism
- remainder not shown; content identical to § Chambers Biographical Dictionary
- with subtitle:The title of Prince Gautama Siddartha, the founder of Buddhism
- Gautama also known as Gotama – 1st c. A.D. Indian philosopher.[40][page needed]
Merriam-Webster's Biographical Dictionary 1995
- Sid·dhār·tha Gau·ta·ma Pali Sid·dat·tha Go·ta·ma. Known as the Bud·dha, i.e. Enlightened One. Called Sāk·ya·mu·ni, i.e. Sage of the Sākyas. c.563–c.483 B.C. Founder of Buddhism. Son of Suddhodana, kind of the Sākyas; b. Kapilavastu, site of present-day Rummindei, Nepal. At age 16 married his cousin Yasodharā; had one son, Rāhula.[41]
- Buddha See Siddartha Gautama[42]
- Gautama See Siddartha Gautama[43]
Oxford Desk Dictionary of People and Places 1999
- Bud·dha |ˈbōōdə| (often the Buddha) a title given to the founder of Buddhism, Siddartha Gautama (c.563–c.460 bc). Born an Indian prince, he renounced wealth and family to become an ascetic, and after achieving enlightenment while meditating, taught all who came to learn from him.[44]
Oxford English Dictionary 1989
- Buddha also [seven alternate spellings omitted] [a. Skr. buddha enlightened, awakened...] the title given by the adherents of one of the great Asiatic religions, thence called Buddhism, to the founder of their faith, Sākyamuni, Gautama, or Siddārtha, who flourished in northern India in the 5th century bc. Sākyamuni is regarded as only the latest of a series of Buddhas or infallible religious teachers which is hereafter to be continued indefinitely.[45]
Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary (2001)
- Buddha n. 1. Also called Butsu, Gautama, Gautama Buddha. (Prince Siddhātta or Siddartha) 566?-c480 B.C., Indian religious leader: founder of Buddhism. 2. Any of a series of leaders of Buddhism, of whom Gautama was the last, who bring enlightenment and wisdom. 3. (sometimes l.c.) a person who has attained full prajna, or enlightenment; Arhat.[46] [more]...
- Gautama Buddha (def. 1)[47]
Roget's International Thesaurus 2019
- Roget's thesaurus organizes entries thematically and not alphabetically, and numbers them without providing definitions, typically in a comma-series of similar terms, or examples. There is no thematic concept for "Buddha" or "Gautama" (or any individual). In this thesaurus, the word "Buddha" shows up under two thematic topics:
- 667 Asceticism <self-denial>
- ascetic, puritan, Sabbatarian; Albigensian; Waldensian; Catharist; abstainer; anchorite, hermit; yogi, yogin; sannyasi, bhikshu, dervish; fakir, flagellant, Penitente; Buddha, bodhi; eremite; mendicant, Franciscan, barefooted Carmelite; Trappist[48]
- 921 WISE PERSON <person with wisdom>
- 2 <exemplars> Solomon, Socrates, Plato, Mentor, Nestor, Confucius, Buddha, Gandhi, Albert Schweitzer, Martin Luther King Jr[49]
Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language (1956)
- Bud'dha [Skr. buddha awakened, enlightened, fr. the root of bodhati he awakes, understands See bid.] The title of an incarnations of self-abnegation, virute, and wisdom, or a deified religious teacher of the Buddhists, esp. Gautama Siddhartha. Gautama Buddha, 563-483 B.C., was born near Kapilavastu, of the Shakya clan, and hence was called Shakya Muni, the Shakya sage. He was married, left his home to become an ascetic, attained Enlightenment (that is he became a Buddha, having until then been a bodhisattva), established an order (sangha) of wandering monks, and taught, what is now called Early Buddhism. See bodhi, nirvana.[50]
Webster's Third New International Dictionary-unabridged 2002
- Bud'dha [Skt. buddha awakened, enlightened, fr. bodhati he awakes, understands – more at bid.] 1 usu cap : a person who has attained Buddhahood 2 [after Gautama Buddha ab. 483 B.C. Indian philosopher who founded Buddhism ] a representation of the philosopher Gautama Buddha.[51]
- Other searches:
- Gautama: no; at p. 941 it goes from gauster to gauze.
- Siddartha: nothing at p. 2111.
Textbooks
[edit]- The boxed section contains content added to Talk:The Buddha in a series of edits between 8 Nov. and 11 Nov. 2022 and copied here from rev. 1123969712.
- 1 Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015), The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE–200 CE, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-84697-4 Google scholar citation index 90.
Coningham and Young, Archaeology of South Asia
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- 2 Thapar, Romila (2004), Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, University of Californian Press, ISBN 0-520-24225-4 Google scholar citation index: 574
Romila Thapar's Early India, University of California Press, 2004
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- 3 Robb, P. (2011), A History of India, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-230-34549-2 Google scholar citation index: 179
Peter Robb on the Buddha
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- 4 Fogelin, Lars (2015). An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1999-4821-5. Google Scholar citation index 50.
Lars Fogelin, Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism, Oxford, 2015
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- 5 Gilbert, Marc Jason (2017). South Asia in World History. The New Oxford World History series. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517653-7. Google scholar citation index 11
Marc Jason Gilbert, South Asia in World History, Oxford, 2017, on the Buddha
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- 6 Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 Google Scholar citation index 47
Tim Dyson, A Population History of India, Oxford, 2019, on the Ganges Basin
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- 7 Stein, B. (2012), Arnold, D. (ed.), A History of India (2nd ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6 Google Scholar Citation index 535
Burton Stein and David Arnold, A History of India, Oxford-Wiley, 2012
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- 8 Kulke, H.; Rothermund, D. (2016), A History of India, 6th, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-138-96114-2 Google scholar citation index 877
Kulke and Rothermund, History of India, Routledge, 2016
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- 9 Ludden, D. (2014), India and South Asia: A Short History (2nd, revised ed.), Oneworld Publications, ISBN 978-1-85168-936-1 Google scholar citation index 102
David Ludden, India and South Asia
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- 10 Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/9781316276044, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2, LCCN 2018021693, S2CID 134229667 Google scholar citation index 25
Michael Fisher,Environmental History of India, CUP, 2018
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Online encyclopedias
[edit]Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions – via encyclopedia.com
- metadata: John Bowker "Buddha ." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. May 23 2018. Retrieved from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/buddha
- Excerpt from https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/buddha
- Buddha (Pāli, Skt.; Chin., fo; Jap., butsu; Korean, pul)
- 1. An enlightened person, literally, 'one who has awakened' to the truth. Traditional Buddhism teaches that there are two sorts, samyaksaṃbuddha (see SAMMASAMBUDDHA) and pratyekabuddha; and that Gotama is one in a series of the former kind. Mahāyāna Buddhism extends the notion of a buddha into a universal principle: all beings possess a ‘buddha-nature’ and are therefore prospective buddhas.
- 2. Title applied to Gotama (Skt., Gautama), the historical founder of Buddhism (hence, the Buddha Gotama or Gotama Buddha).
- Gotama Buddha is also known, especially in Mahāyāna, as Buddha Sākyamuni (i.e. the Wise One, or Sage, of the Śakya clan). There are uncertainties about his dates. According to the Long Chronology, he lived just over 200 years before Aśoka, giving approximate dates of 566–486 BCE. According to the Short Chronology, he lived 100 years before Aśoka, i.e. c.448–368. He was born Siddhārtha Gotama or Gautama, in Kapilavastu, in modern-day Nepal. After his enlightenment, he became known as the Buddha, the Enlightened One. Although many stories of his life are told, and immense bodies of teaching are attributed to him, it is not possible to reconstruct his biography or his own teaching with any historical certainty—nor, from a Buddhist point of view, is it in the least desirable. The Buddha is a physician who diagnoses illness and suggests treatment; but the worth or the value lies, not in the biography of the physician, but on whether the patient is cured.
Encyclopaedia Britannica online – https://www.britannica.com/
- search query: search for 'Gautama Buddha' from the search box.[c]
- result summary: top result is 'Buddha (founder of Buddhism)' as #1 result: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Buddha-founder-of-Buddhism . The term Gautama Buddha does not appear as a headword on the result page.
- Excerpt from Buddha (founder of Buddhism):
- Buddha, (Sanskrit: “Awakened One”) clan name (Sanskrit) Gautama or (Pali) Gotama, personal name (Sanskrit) Siddhartha or (Pali) Siddhattha, (born c. 6th–4th century BCE, Lumbini, near Kapilavastu, Shakya republic, Kosala kingdom [now in Nepal]—died, Kusinara, Malla republic, Magadha kingdom [now Kasia, India]), the founder of Buddhism, one of the major religions and philosophical systems of southern and eastern Asia and of the world.
- compare with print edition above.
Encyclopedia of Religion online – via encyclopedia.com
- metadata: Reynolds, Frank; Hallisey, Charles; "Buddha". from Encyclopedia.com.
- Excerpt from BUDDHA
- BUDDHA
Etymologically, the Sanskrit/Pali word buddha means "one who has awakened"; in the context of Indian religions it is used as an honorific title for an individual who is enlightened. This metaphor indicates the change in consciousness that, according to Buddhism, is always characteristic of enlightenment. It suggests the otherness and splendor associated with those named by this epithet in various Buddhist traditions. Buddha is also related etymologically to the Sanskrit/Pali term buddhi, which signifies "intelligence" and "understanding." A person who has awakened can thus be said to be "one who knows." - identical or near-identical language in print media; see § Encyclopedia of Religion above
UXL Encyclopedia of World Biography – via encyclopedia.com
- metadata: "Buddha ." UXL Encyclopedia of World Biography. May 23 2018. Retrievedfrom Encyclopedia.com
- Excerpt from https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/buddha
- Buddha
The Buddha was an Indian philosopher (seeker of wisdom), religious teacher, and the historical founder of Buddhism. He is regarded by some as a human spiritual teacher (concerned with religious values) and by others as an all-knowing supreme being. - Early Years
- The Buddha, or "enlightened one" (free from ignorance and misunderstanding), was born Siddhartha Gautama in northern India near the town of Kapilavastu. His father was ruler of a poor Indian tribe, the Shakyas. His mother died seven days after giving birth to him. Some legends say that he was able to walk and talk at birth. It is also written that he first fell into a state of meditation (focusing all of one's thoughts on something) as a boy while sitting under a tree watching his father plow a field. Meditation was to become an important part of his life.
Encyclopedia of World History – https://www.worldhistory.org/
- search query: https://www.worldhistory.org/search/?q=Gautama+Buddha
- top result: Siddhartha Gautama
- metadata: Mark, Joshua J. "Siddhartha Gautama." World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 23 Sep 2020. Web. 15 Oct 2022.
- Excerpt:
- Siddhartha Gautama (better known as the Buddha, l. c. 563 - c. 483 BCE) was, according to legend, a Hindu prince who renounced his position and wealth to seek enlightenment as a spiritual ascetic, attained his goal and, in preaching his path to others, founded Buddhism in India in the 6th-5th centuries BCE.
- Note: questions have been raised about the reliability of EoWH as a source; see WP:RSN.
International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences online – via encyclopedia.com
- result: https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/buddha
- metadata: via Encyclopedia.com:
- Excerpt:
- Buddha. [table of contents...]
Though often used in a general sense to identify any individual who has achieved enlightenment without the aid of others, the term Buddha usually denotes the historical founder of Buddhism, Siddhártha Gautama. Scholars generally deem Gautama a historical figure who passed along to his followers the foundations of Buddhist philosophy and practice. Frequently referred to as "the Buddha," or the "Enlightened One," most Buddhists believe Gautama to be the Buddha for this age (though there have been numerous buddhas throughout history).- compare with print edition of IESS above
The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism 2013
- buddha. (T. sangs rgyas; C. fo; J. butsu/hototke; K. pul). In Sanskrit and Pāli, "awakened one" or "enlightened one"; an epithet derived from the Sanskrit root √budh, meaning "to awaken" or "to open up" (as does a flower) and thus traditionally etymologized as one who has awakened from the deep sleep of ignorance and opened his consciousness to encomparass all objects of knowledge. The term was used in ancient India by a number of different religious groups, but came to be most strongly associated with followers of the teacher Gautama, the "Sage of the Sākya clan" (Sākyamuni), who claimed to be only the most recent of a succession of buddhas who had appeared in the world over many eons of time (kalpa).[52]
- Gautama. (P. Gotama; T. Go ta ma; C. Jutan; J. Kudon; K. Kudam). The family name of the historical Buddha, also known as Sākyamuni Buddha. He was a member of the Sākya tribe of what is today southern Nepal (hence his epithet (Sākyamuni, "Sage of the Sākyas"). Within that group, his family or clan (gotra) was Gautama. He name means "descendants of Gotama" in Sanskrit, with Gotama (lit. "Excellent Cow") being the name of several brāhmanas of ancient India, including a poet of the Rg Veda. Thus, the name of the Buddha's tribe or ethnicgroup was Sākya, the name of his family or clan was Gautama, and his given name was Siddhārtha. In Pāli literature, he is more commonly referred to as Gotama Buddha; in Mahāyāna texts, Sākyamuni Buddha is more common.[53]
- Sākyamuni. (P. Sakkamuni; T. Shākya thub pa; C. Shijiamouni; J. Shakamuni; in Korean Sokkamoini). In Sanskrit, "Sage of the Sakya Clan," one of the most common epithets of Gautama Buddha, especially in the Mahāyāna traditions, where the name Sākyamuni is used to distinguish the historical buddha from the myriad other buddhas who appear in the {{smallcaps}sutra}}s. The Sākyas were a tribe in northern India into which was born Siddārtha Gautama, the man who would become the historical buddha.[54]
- Siddārtha. (P. Siddagattha; T. Don grub; C. Xidaduo; J. Shiddata/Shittatta; K. Siltalta). In Sanskrit, "He Who Achieves His Goal", the personal name of Gautama Buddha, also known as Sākyamuni. In some acconts of the life of the Buddha, afer his royal birth as the son of King Suddhodanda, the bodhisattva was given this name and is referred to by that name during his life as a prince and his practice of asceticism.[55]
World Encyclopedia – via encyclopedia.com
- metadata: "Buddha ." World Encyclopedia. Updated May 14 2018. Retrieved from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/buddha
- Excerpt:
- Buddha (Enlightened One) Title adopted by Gautama Siddhartha (c.563–c.483 bc), the founder of Buddhism. Born at Lumbini, Nepal, Siddhartha was son of the ruler of the Sakya tribe, and his early years were spent in luxury. At the age of 29, he realized that human life is little more than suffering. He gave up his wealth and comfort, deserted his wife and small son, and took to the road as a wandering ascetic. He travelled south, and sought truth in a six-year regime of austerity and self-mortification. After abandoning asceticism as futile, he sought his own middle way towards enlightenment. The moment of truth came in c.528 bc, as he sat beneath a banyan tree in the village of Buddha Gaya, Bihar, India. After this incident, he taught others about his way to truth. The title ‘buddha’ applies to those who have achieved perfect enlightenment. Buddhists believe that there have been several buddhas before Siddhartha, and there will be many to come. The term also serves to describe a variety of Buddha images.
- compare American Desk Encyclopedia above
Online dictionaries
[edit]American Heritage Dictionary – https://www.ahdictionary.com/
- Bud·dha 1 (bdə, bdə)
- See Siddhartha Gautama[56]
- Gau·ta·ma (gôtə-mə, gou-), Siddhartha Known as "the Bud·dha" (bdə, bdə) 563?-483? BC.
- Indian mystic and founder of Buddhism. Born a prince, he began preaching at the age of 35 after developing the central tenets of Buddhism through intense meditation.[57]
Merriam-Webster – https://www.merriam-webster.com/
- Sid·dhār·tha Gau·ta·ma | \ si-ˈdär-tə-ˈgau̇-tə-mə , -ˈgō- \
- circa 563–circa 483 b.c. The Buddha \ ˈbü-də , ˈbu̇-\ Indian philosopher and founder of Buddhism[58]
- Other searches:
- gautama buddha ⟶ no results; suggested searches: Pratyeka Buddha, Panama balata)
- gautama ⟶ no direct result, one result shown inline: Siddhārtha Gautama
- the buddha ⟶ redirects to Siddhārtha Gautama
OED Online – https://www.oed.com/
- Buddha, n.
- Forms:
- α. 1600s–1800s Buddou, 1800s Boodhoo, 1800s Boudhou, 1800s Buddho
- [frequency, origin, etymology sections omitted]
- 1. Also with the: (a title for) Siddhārtha Gautama, or Śākyamuni, a spiritual teacher from South Asia on whose teachings Buddhism is based, and who is believed to have been born in what is now Nepal and flourished in what is now Bihar, northeastern India, during the 5th cent. b.c. Also: (a title given to) any Buddhist teacher regarded as having attained full awakening or enlightenment.[59]
- [long list of examples over the centuries omitted]
- 2. A representation, esp. a statue, of the Buddha.
- [examples omitted; other compound meanings omitted]
- Other searches:
- Search Gautama Buddha: No dictionary entries found for ‘Gautama Buddha’.
- Search Gautama: No dictionary entries found for ‘Gautama’. (did you mean: agama, asthma, ...)
- Search Siddartha: No dictionary entries found for ‘Siddartha’. (did you mean: siddha, mid-earth)
- Search the buddha: redirects to Buddha (shown above).
Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English – via encyclopedia.com
- metadata: "Buddha ." The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English. . Retrieved from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/buddha-1
- Excerpt:
- Bud·dha / ˈboōdə; ˈboŏdə/ (often the Buddha) a title given to the founder of Buddhism, Siddartha Gautama (c.563–c.460 bc). Born an Indian prince, he renounced wealth and family to become an ascetic, and after achieving enlightenment while meditating, taught all who came to learn from him.
- ∎ [as n.] (a buddha) Buddhism a person who has attained full enlightenment. ∎ a statue or picture of the Buddha.
- compare Oxford Desk Dictionary of People and Places above
Scope and methodology
[edit]In order to comply with WP:AT article title policies that could affect the title of this article, I looked for tertiary sources in English with encyclopedia or dictionary in the title. That includes tertiary sources in translation (such as the § Great Soviet Encyclopedia) but there were only one or two such. Anything else that is clearly tertiary (such as a thesaurus, an almanac, a concordance, etc.) would also be in scope for this list.
For the online searches, I searched Google for entries with "encyclopedia" or "dictionary" in the title, and the words "the Buddha" or "Gautama Buddha" anywhere on the page. (I relied on Google to find titles with encyclopaedia or encyclopædia, and did not explicitly search for those terms.) The major result right away was "encyclopedia.com", which provided a lot of resources. The way encyclopedia.com organizes results is a bit odd, with long and comprehensive pages appearing to contain content (separately) from multiple encyclopedias in one long page; see the section on § Encyclopedia.com about the oddities involved in referring to content found there.
I also searched the Wikipedia Library, but haven't found anything that wasn't available by some other method, but I suspect that TWL general search of all databases doesn't work as well as searching the individual collections, so there may still be resources to discover there.
For print media, I started with library card catalog searches of the same type, and tried to access everything I could online, and got whatever hard copies I could. The list is not exhaustive, and in particular Hoopla has a lot of relevant content that I haven't been able to include for lack of time. If you have a library card, you can probably access Hoopla and add additional resources.
Whether online or print, I first searched for entries under Gautama Buddha (and variant Gotama Buddha), then Buddha, then Siddhartha. If a resource had a redirect or a cross-reference entry, I mentioned that (such as for § Encyclopædia Britannica, which includes: "Gautama: see Buddha").
The excerpts included are of different lengths, sometimes briefer as is usual with a dictionary entry, or when the question of how the source refers to the topic name under discussion is resolved by the headword or encyclopedic topic title or chapter name. Sometimes more context is required to resolve the usage question, and in those cases more text is excerpted. I omitted parentheticals about pronunciation in print media sources in the majority of cases, because it was too difficult to find or type the special characters required.
Regarding independence of sources, this is not always easy to determine. This is especially true in the case of Webster's Dictionary, which as the article states, can be any of "numerous related or unrelated dictionaries that have adopted the Webster's name" and has since become a genericized trademark and is "widely used in dictionary titles".
If I became aware of similar language or a linkage between two sources, I added a buttnote about this. For example, under § American Desk Encyclopedia (a print encyclopedia) there is a "compare..." note under the excerpt linking it with § World Encyclopedia in the online encyclopedia section, and a back-link from the latter to the former.
This page is strictly about listing sources; feel free to add any reliable source you can find that is within scope. This page is not about making arguments or drawing conclusions based on this list; please use another page for that.
Usage notes
[edit]Encyclopedia.com
[edit]Encyclopedia.com consolidates results from "over 200 individual encyclopedias and reference books" and provides direct search as well as by-topic browsing capability. I haven't found a complete list of their references, but here is their About page. This website stands out among all others because of its breadth and scope, and wide availability of reliable sources.
From the search box on the home page, you can do searches like:
Besides the search box on the home page where you can do general keyword search, you can also browse by topic, using the 'Explore' link top right, for example:
- Home page: click 'Explore', then follow the breadcrumbs:
> Philosophy and Religion > Eastern Religions > Buddhism > Buddha
Search/browse/url oddities
[edit]At encyclopedia.com, browsing and stepping through the breadcrumbs vs. searching can eventually get you to the same content, but sometimes the url appears to be a redirect, and the url in the address bar will be different than what you clicked, but the content is still there, somewhere down the page. Take "§ Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions" for example; the url given in that section is https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/buddha, but if you click it you end up at https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/eastern-religions/buddhism/buddha#Buddha, which also appears to have different content. But in fact, if you search down the page, you can see that the content is there (search on page, for example, for there are two sorts
, and it will jump down to near the bottom; clicking the large "open quote" icon gets you the citation, and confirms that this is, in fact, the Bowker article, as expected).
So, if urls for any of the encyclopedia.com sources appear to be "incorrect" or redirects, or the page doesn't appear to have the content, that's what could be happening. If you view the page source of that HTML page, you can see it is actually very short, and just lists the half dozen or so different pages that are included there (by script, I think); so it's kind of like an old-style frame tag in html. In any case, encyclopedia.com urls and pages can do odd things, so just be aware, in case you think you're on the wrong page or wrong url, you might not be; content pages may be a portmanteau of content from several other pages, with the apparently "wrong" url corresponding to just one section of content on the rendered page you are on. This may act like a redirect, or something else.
Notes
[edit]- ^ World Book volume 2, 'B' p. 667
- ^ volume 8 'G' p. 70
- ^ The actual Britannica search query cannot be linked or even listed here, because it is on Wikimedia's global spam blacklist.
References
[edit]Citations
[edit]- ^ AAE 1995, vol. 3, p=538.
- ^ AAE 1995, vol. 9.
- ^ Powers 2013, p. 198.
- ^ Powers 2013, p. 45.
- ^ American Desk Encyclopedia 1998, p. 129–130.
- ^ Ferm 1943, p. 91-110.
- ^ Ferm 1943, p. 93.
- ^ Canney 1921, p. 80.
- ^ Smart 1997, p. 305.
- ^ Columbia Encyclopedia 2000, p. 403.
- ^ Americana 2006, p. 687.
- ^ EB 1911 & v4, p. 737.
- ^ Britannica-v2 1998, p. 602.
- ^ Britannica-v5 1998, p. 151.
- ^ Britannica-v15 1998, p. 263.
- ^ Nicholls 1997, p. 135.
- ^ Nicholls 1997, p. 332.
- ^ Jones 2005, p. 1059–1060.
- ^ Hastings 1910, p. 881.
- ^ Hastings 1910, vol. 6, p=170.
- ^ Pike 1951, p. 69-70.
- ^ Pike 1951, p. 161.
- ^ Byers 1998, p. 97.
- ^ Reynolds 2008, p. 147.
- ^ GSE 1973, p. 136.
- ^ IESS 1968, vol 2, p. 165.
- ^ IESS 1968, vol 2, p. 167.
- ^ Doniger 1999, pp. 144–145.
- ^ WNEDE 2003, p. 183.
- ^ Parry 1997, p. 292–293.
- ^ Parry 1997, p. 717.
- ^ Keown 2004, p. 42.
- ^ Keown 2004, p. 100.
- ^ Keown 2004, pp. 216–217.
- ^ Brandon 1970, p. 154.
- ^ Brandon 1970, p. 310.
- ^ HarperCollins 1993, p. 103.
- ^ HarperCollins 1993.
- ^ Houghton Mifflin 2003, p. 239.
- ^ Houghton Mifflin 2003.
- ^ M-W Biog. Dict. 1995, p. 951.
- ^ M-W Biog. Dict. 1995, p. 154.
- ^ M-W Biog. Dict. 1995, p. 403.
- ^ Oxford Desk Dict 1999, p. 54.
- ^ OED 1989, Buddha.
- ^ RHW 2001, p. 272.
- ^ RHW 2001, p. 792.
- ^ Roget 2019, p. 500.
- ^ Roget 2019, p. 666.
- ^ Webster's Unabridged 1956, p. 1349.
- ^ Webster's Third 2002, p. 289.
- ^ Buswell & Lopez 2013, pp. 148–149.
- ^ Buswell & Lopez 2013, p. 316.
- ^ Buswell & Lopez 2013, pp. 741–742.
- ^ Buswell & Lopez 2013, p. 817.
- ^ American Heritage online, Buddha.
- ^ American Heritage online, Gautama.
- ^ Merriam-Webster, Siddhartha Gautama.
- ^ OED Online 2022, Buddha.
Works cited
[edit]- Academic American Encyclopedia, Volume 3. Grolier Incorporated. 1995. ISBN 978-0-7172-2059-5. OCLC 31434355.
- Scholastic Library Publishing (2006). Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 4. Scholastic Library Pub. ISBN 978-0-7172-0139-6. OCLC 60798441.
- Steve Luck, ed. (22 October 1998). The American Desk Encyclopedia. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 129–130. ISBN 978-0-19-521465-9. OCLC 1145804997.
- "American Heritage online". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Harper Collins.
- Brandon, Samuel George Frederick Brandon (1970). Brandon, Samuel George Frederick (ed.). A Dictionary of Comparative Religion. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-15561-6. OCLC 1035418455.
- Encyclopaedia Britannica (1998). The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (Micropaedia-Vol. 2) (15 ed.). Encyclopaedia Britannica, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-85229-663-9. OCLC 855170286.
- Encyclopaedia Britannica (1998). The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (Micropaedia-Vol. 5) (15 ed.). Encyclopaedia Britannica, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-852296-639. OCLC 37558138.
- The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, Volume 15, Macropaedia Knowledge in Depth: Birds - Chess. OCLC 855170299.
- Buswell, Robert E., Jr.; Lopez, Donald S., Jr. (24 November 2013). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15786-3. OCLC 1043470627.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Byers, Paula Kay, ed. (1998). Encyclopedia of World Biography. Vol. 3 Bric-Chi (2 ed.). Gale Research. ISBN 978-0-7876-2543-6. OCLC 1001349824.
- Paul Lagassé, ed. (2000). "Columbia Encyclopedia". The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Columbia University Press. ISBN 0787650153. OCLC 973909284.
- Canney, Maurice Arthur (1921). An Encyclopaedia of Religions. G. Routledge & sons, Limited. OCLC 1063024864.
- Doniger, Wendy, ed. (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0. OCLC 1024847483.
- The Encyclopædia Britannica: The New Volumes, Constituting, in Combination with the Twenty-nine Volumes of the Eleventh Edition, the Twelfth Edition of that Work, and Also Supplying a New, Distinctive, and Independent Library of Reference Dealing with Events and Developments of the ...,. Vol. 4 Bisharin to Calgary. Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Limited. 1911. OCLC 18471884.
- Vergilius Ferm (1943). Vergilius Ferm (ed.). An Encyclopedia of religion. Philos. Libr. OCLC 1154566312.
- Aleksandr Mikhaĭlovich Prokhorov, ed. (1973). Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Volume 4. Macmillan. OCLC 810278.
- Harper Collins Publishers (1993). The HarperCollins Dictionary of Biography. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-270098-8. OCLC 29639225.
- James Hastings; John Alexander Selbie; Louis Herbert Gray, eds. (1910). Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics: Arthur-Bunyan. Vol. 2. T. & T. Clark. pp. 881–. ISBN 978-0-567-06503-2. OCLC 1001148159.
- Houghton Mifflin Company (2003). The Houghton Mifflin Dictionary of Biography. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-25210-7. OCLC 1037183051.
- David L. Sills. International Encyclopedia Social Sciences. Macmillan.
- Jones, Lindsay, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion: Attributes of God (2 ed.). Macmillan Reference USA. OCLC 56057973.
- Keown, Damien (26 August 2004). A Dictionary of Buddhism. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-157917-2. OCLC 1006438323.
- Merriam-Webster, Inc (1995). Merriam-Webster's Biographical Dictionary (3 ed.). Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster. ISBN 978-0-87779-743-2. OCLC 1011863921.>
- "Merriam-Webster". Merriam-Webster.
- Nicholls, Christine Stephanie, ed. (1997). Encyclopedia of Biography. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-17568-9. OCLC 1033569814.
- Frank R. Abate, ed. (1999). The Oxford Desk Dictionary of People and Places. Oxford University Press. pp. 54–. ISBN 978-0-19-513872-6. OCLC 247101965.
- "OED Online". OED Online. Oxford University Press. September 2022. Retrieved 16 October 2022.
- The Oxford English Dictionary, Volume 2 (2 ed.). Clarendon Press. 1989. ISBN 978-0-19-861186-8. OCLC 17648714.
- Parry, Melanie, ed. (1997). Chambers Biographical Dictionary (6 ed.). Chambers. ISBN 978-0-550-16060-7. OCLC 1027227949.
- Edgar Royston Pike (1951). Encyclopedia of Religion and Religions. London: Allen & Unwin. OCLC 322162.
- Powers, John (1 October 2013). A Concise Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Oxford: Oneworld. ISBN 978-1-78074-476-6. OCLC 890982263.</ref>
- Reynolds, Frank (1 May 2008). Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc (ed.). Encyclopedia of World Religions. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. ISBN 978-1-59339-491-2. OCLC 1005638731 – via Hoopla.
- Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary (2 ed.). Random House. 2001. ISBN 978-0-375-42599-8. OCLC 1014095339.
- Barbara Ann Kipfer (29 October 2019). Roget's International Thesaurus, 8th Edition [thumb indexed]. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-284372-2. OCLC 1083676075.
- Ninian Smart (11 September 2002). "16". In Brian Carr (ed.). Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-96058-3. OCLC 35049601.
- Merriam-Webster, Inc, ed. (2003). Webster's New Explorer Desk Encyclopedia. Federal Street Press. ISBN 978-1-892859-43-3. OCLC 1037223525.
- Merriam-Webster. Webster's Third New International Dictionary-unabridged 2002. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. OCLC 1331008540.
- William Allan Neilson (1956). Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language (2nd, Unabridged ed.). Springfield, Mass.: G. and C. Merriam. OCLC 904291867.