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High-fructose corn syrup

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High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is any of a group of corn syrups which have undergone enzymatic processing in order to increase their fructose content and are then mixed with pure corn syrup (100% glucose) to reach their final form. The typical types of HFCS are: HFCS 90 (used almost exclusively in the production of HFCS 55) which is approximately 90% fructose and 10% glucose; HFCS 55 (most commonly used in soft drinks) which is approximately 55% fructose and 45% glucose; and HFCS 42 (used in a variety of other foods, including baked goods) which is approximately 42% fructose and 58% glucose.[1]

The process by which HFCS is produced was first developed by Richard O. Marshall and Earl R. Kooi in 1957[2]. The industrial production process was refined by Dr. Y. Takasaki at Agency of Industrial Science and Technology of Ministry of International Trade and Industry of Japan in 1965-1970. HFCS was rapidly introduced in many processed foods and soft drinks in the US over the period of about 1975–1985.

In terms of sweetness, HFCS 55 is comparable to table sugar (sucrose), which is a disaccharide of fructose and glucose.[3] This makes it useful to manufacturers as a possible substitute for sucrose in soft drinks and other processed foods. HFCS 90 is sweeter than sucrose, while HFCS 42 is not as sweet as sucrose.

Use as a replacement for sugar

Since its introduction, HFCS has begun to replace sugar in various processed foods in the USA and Canada.[4] The main reasons for this switch are:[5]

  • HFCS is somewhat cheaper in the United States due to a combination of corn subsidies and sugar tariffs [6]
  • HFCS is easier to blend and transport because it is a liquid.[7]

Comparison to other sugars

Cane and beet sugar

Cane sugar and Beet sugar are both relatively pure sucrose. While the glucose and fructose which are the two components of HFCS are monosaccharides, sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose linked together with a relatively weak glycosidic bond. A molecule of sucrose (with a chemical formula of C12H22O11) can be broken down into a molecule of glucose (C6H12O6) plus a molecule of fructose (also C6H12O6 — an isomer of glucose) in a weakly acidic environment[citation needed]. Sucrose is broken down during digestion into fructose and glucose through hydrolysis by the enzyme sucrase, by which the body regulates the rate of sucrose breakdown. Without this regulation mechanism, the body has less control over the rate of sugar absorption into the bloodstream.

The fact that sucrose is composed of glucose and fructose units chemically bonded complicates the comparison between cane sugar and HFCS. Sucrose, glucose and fructose are unique, distinct molecules. Sucrose is broken down into its constituent monosaccharides - namely fructose and glucose - in weakly acidic environments by a process called inversion.[citation needed] This same process occurs in the stomach and in the small intestine during the digestion of sucrose into fructose and glucose.[citation needed] People with sucrase deficiency cannot digest (break down) sucrose, and thus exhibit sucrose intolerance.

Both HFCS and sucrose have approximately 4 kcal per gram of solid if the HFCS is dried; HFCS has approximately 3 kcal per gram in its liquid form [8].

Honey

Honey is a mixture of different types of sugars, water, and small amounts of other compounds. Honey typically has a fructose/glucose ratio similar to HFCS 55, as well as containing some sucrose and other sugars. Honey, HFCS and sucrose have the same number of calories, having approximately 4 kcal per gram of solid; honey and HFCS both have about 3 kcal per gram in liquid form.[8]

Production

High-fructose corn syrup is produced by milling corn to produce corn starch, then processing that corn starch to yield corn syrup which is almost entirely glucose, and then adding enzymes which change the glucose into fructose. The resulting syrup (after enzyme conversion) contains approximately 90% fructose and is HFCS 90. To make the other common forms of HFCS (HFCS 55 and HFCS 42) the HFCS 90 is mixed with 100% glucose corn syrup in the appropriate ratios to form the desired HFCS. The enzyme process which changes the 100% glucose corn syrup into HFCS 90 is as follows:

  1. Cornstarch is treated with alpha-amylase to produce shorter chains of sugars called oligosaccharides.
  2. Glucoamylase breaks the sugar chains down even further to yield the simple sugar glucose.
  3. Xylose isomerase (aka glucose isomerase) converts glucose to a mixture of about 42% fructose and 50–52% glucose with some other sugars mixed in.

While inexpensive alpha-amylase and glucoamylase are added directly to the slurry and used only once, the more costly glucose-isomerase is packed into columns and the sugar mixture is then passed over it, allowing it to be used repeatedly until it loses its activity. This 42–43% fructose glucose mixture is then subjected to a liquid chromatography step where the fructose is enriched to approximately 90%. The 90% fructose is then back-blended with 42% fructose to achieve a 55% fructose final product. Most manufacturers use carbon absorption for impurity removal. Numerous filtration, ion-exchange and evaporation steps are also part of the overall process.

Measuring concentration of HFCS

The units of measurement for sugars including HFCS are degrees Brix (symbol °Bx). Brix is a measurement of the mass ratio of dissolved sugars to water in a liquid. A 25 °Bx solution has 25 grams of sugar per 100 grams of liquid (25% w/w). Or, to put it another way, there are 25 grams of sugar and 75 grams of water in the 100 grams of solution. The Brix measurement was introduced by Antoine Brix.

When an infrared Brix sensor is used, it measures the vibrational frequency of the high-fructose corn syrup molecules, giving a Brix degrees measurement. This will not be the same measurement as Brix degrees using a density or refractive index measurement because it will specifically measure dissolved sugar concentration instead of all dissolved solids. When a refractometer is used, it is correct to report the result as "refractometric dried substance" (RDS). One might speak of a liquid as being 20 °Bx RDS. This is a measure of percent by weight of total dried solids and, although not technically the same as Brix degrees determined through an infrared method, renders an accurate measurement of sucrose content since the majority of dried solids are in fact sucrose. The advent of in-line infrared Brix measurement sensors have made measuring the amount of dissolved HFCS in products economical using a direct measurement. It also gives the possibility of a direct volume/volume measurement.

Recently [2]an isotopic method for quantifying sweeteners derived from corn and sugar cane was developed by Jahren et al. which permits measurement of corn syrup and cane sugar derived sweeteners in humans thus allowing dietary assessment of the intake of these substances relative to total intake.

Sweetener consumption patterns

In the United States and Canada

US sweetener consumption, 1966-2004. It is apparent from this graph that overall sweetener consumption, and in particular glucose-fructose mixtures, has increased since the introduction of HFCS. Thus, the amount of fructose consumed in the United States & Canada has increased since the early 1980s. This would be true whether the added sweetener was HFCS, table sugar, or any other glucose-fructose mixture. However, because HFCS has slightly more fructose than does table sugar, the proportion of fructose as a component of overall sweetener intake in the United States has also increased, which would not be true if the increase in overall intake was table sugar.

Because of a system of price supports and sugar quotas imposed since May 1982, importing sugar into the United States and Canada is prohibitively expensive. High-fructose corn syrup, derived from corn, is more economical since the American and Canadian prices of sugar are artificially far higher than the global price of sugar[9] and the price of #2 corn is artificially low due to both government subsidies and dumping on the market as farmers produce more corn annually.[10][11] The food industry turned to HFCS as a substitute, with both Coca-Cola and Pepsi switching to HFCS in 1984.[12]

Other countries, including Mexico typically use sugar in soft drinks. Some Americans seek out Mexican Coke in ethnic groceries, because they feel it tastes better or is healthier than Coke made with HFCS. [3]

The average American consumed approximately 28.4 kg of HFCS in 2005, versus 26.7 kg of sucrose sugar.[13] In countries where HFCS is not used or rarely used, sucrose consumption per person may be higher than in the USA; Sucrose consumption per person from various locations is show below (2002):[14]

  • USA: 32.4 kg
  • EU: 40.1 kg
  • Brazil: 59.7 kg
  • Australia: 56.2 kg

Of course, in terms of total sugars consumed, the figures from countries where HFCS is not used should be compared to the sum of the sucrose and HFCS figures from countries where HFCS consumption is significant.

International markets

In the European Union (EU), HFCS, known as isoglucose, has been subject to production quotas under the sugar regime since 1977. Production of isoglucose in the EU has been limited to 507,000 metric tons, equivalent to about 2%-3% of sugar production. Therefore, wide scale replacement of sugar has not occurred in the EU. In Japan, HFCS consumption accounts for one quarter of total sweetener consumption.[15]

Controversies

Controversy has arisen over the use of high-fructose corn syrup as a food additive as manufacturers begin to use high-fructose corn syrup in an increasing variety of foods, such as breads, cereals, soft drinks, and condiments.

American farm lobby

Main article: Agricultural policy

The preference for high-fructose corn syrup over cane sugar among the vast majority of American food and beverage manufacturers is largely due to U.S. import quotas and tariffs on sugar. These tariffs significantly increase the domestic U.S. price for sugar, forcing Americans to pay more than twice the world price for sugar, thus making high-fructose corn syrup an attractive substitute in U.S. markets. For instance, soft drink makers like Coca-Cola use sugar in other nations, but use high-fructose corn syrup in their U.S. products.

Large corporations, such as Archer Daniels Midland, lobby for the continuation of these subsidies.[16] Since local and federal laws often put a limit on how much money one particular lobbyist can contribute,[17] ADM's contributions are often given by numerous smaller entities under the authority of ADM. This is commonly called bundling political contributions.

The U.S. farm lobby/sugar industry is also suspected of having pushed the FDA to unjustifiably restrict the importation of stevia (a natural sugar substitute used in Japan and elsewhere for over 30 years) despite Joint Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization Expert Committee supporting its safety.[18][19]

Health effects

There are indications that soda and sweet drinks provide a greater proportion of daily calories than any other food in the American diet.[20] Overconsumption of sugars has been linked to adverse health effects, and most of these effects are similar for HFCS and sucrose. There is a correlation between the rise of obesity in the U.S. and the use of HFCS for sweetening beverages and foods. The controversy largely comes down to whether this is coincidence or a causal relationship. Some critics of HFCS do not claim that it is any worse than similar quantities of sucrose would be, but rather focus on its prominent role in the overconsumption of sugar; for example, encouraging overconsumption through its low cost.

The possible difference in health effects between sucrose and HFCS could come from the difference in chemical make up between them[citation needed]. HFCS 55 (the type most commonly used in soft drinks) is made up of 55% fructose and 45% glucose. By contrast, sucrose is made up of 50% fructose and 50% glucose. Further, the fructose and glucose in HFCS 55 are in the form of separate molecules; by contrast, the fructose and glucose that are contained in sucrose are joined together to form a single molecule (called a disaccharide). This chemical difference may be less significant in many beverages that are sweetened with sucrose. This is because many beverages are strongly acidic, and the acid in the beverage will cause the sucrose to separate into its component parts of glucose and fructose. The amount of sucrose converted will depend on the temperature the beverage is kept at and the amount of time it is kept at this temperature.

There are a number of relevant studies published in peer reviewed journals. Studies on the effect of fructose, as reviewed by Elliot et al.[21], implicate increased consumption of fructose (due primarily to the increased consumption of sugars but also partly due to the slightly higher fructose content of HFCS as compared to sucrose) in obesity and insulin resistance. In contrast, a review supported by Tate & Lyle, a large corn refiner, concluded "that HFCS does not appear to contribute to overweight and obesity any differently than do other energy sources."[22]

Melanson et al.[23] concluded that sucrose is metabolized by the body like a mixture of 50% glucose and 50% fructose with no detectable difference from HFCS and Monsivais et al.[24] could detect no difference in the reported satiety levels in people consuming sucrose or HFCS flavoured drinks.

Somewhat related, researchers Sun and Empie — employed by Archer Daniels Midland (a company which produces HFCS) — found no difference in rates of obesity between people who regularly consume sugar sweetened drinks and those who do not.[25]

Chi-Tang Ho et al. found that soft drinks sweetened with HFCS are up to 10 times richer in harmful carbonyl compounds, such as methylglyoxal, than a diet soft drink control.[26] Carbonyl compounds are elevated in people with diabetes and are blamed for causing diabetic complications such as foot ulcers and eye and nerve damage;[27][28] However, since this study did not compare reactive carbonyl levels in HFCS-sweetened drinks to those in sucrose or invert sugar sweetened drinks (a diet soft drink was used as a control), it only provides a correlation; that HFCS-sweetened drinks are higher in reactive carbonyls than those sweetened with other caloric sweeteners.[27]

One study concluded that foods with increased pure fructose "produced significantly higher fasting plasma triacylglycerol values than did the glucose diet in men" and "if plasma triacylglycerols are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, then diets high in fructose may be undesirable".[29] Bantle, et al. "noted the same effects in a study of 14 healthy volunteers who sequentially ate a high-fructose diet and one almost devoid of the sugar."[30]

A study in mice suggests that fructose increases obesity.[31] Large quantities of fructose stimulate the liver to produce triglycerides, promotes glycation of proteins and induces insulin resistance.[32] According to one study, the average American consumes nearly 70 pounds of HFCS per annum, marking HFCS as a major contributor to the rising rates of obesity in the last generation. [33]

Some of the above-referenced studies have addressed fructose specifically, not sweeteners such as HFCS or sucrose which contain fructose in combination with other sugars. Thus, although they indicate that high fructose intake should be avoided, they don't necessarily indicate that HFCS is worse than sucrose intake, except insofar as HFCS contains 10% more fructose. Studies which have compared HFCS to sucrose (as opposed to pure fructose) find that they have essentially identical physiological effects. For instance, Melanson et al (2006), studied the effects of HFCS and sucrose sweetened drinks on blood glucose, insulin, leptin, and ghrelin levels. They found no significant differences in any of these parameters.[23]

Perrigue et al (2006) compared the effects of isocaloric servings of colas sweetened HFCS 45, HFCS 55, sucrose, and aspartame on satiety and subsequent energy intake. They found that all of the drinks with caloric sweeteners produced similar satiety responses, and had the same effects on subsequent energy intake. Taken together with Melanson et al (2006), this study suggests that there is little or no evidence for the hypothesis that HFCS is different from sucrose in its effects on appetite or on metabolic processes involved in fat storage. Both the Perrigue et al study and the Melanson et al study were funded by "the American Beverage Institute and the Corn Refiners Association."[34][35]

One much-publicized 2004 study found an association between obesity and high HFCS consumption, especially from soft drinks.[36] However, this study did not provide any evidence that this association is causal. In fact, one of the study coauthors, Dr. Barry M. Popkin, is quoted in the New York Times as saying, "I don't think there should be a perception that high-fructose corn syrup has caused obesity until we know more."[37] In the same article, Walter Willets, chair of the nutrition department of the Harvard School of Public Health, is quoted as saying, "There's no substantial evidence to support the idea that high-fructose corn syrup is somehow responsible for obesity .... If there was no high-fructose corn syrup, I don't think we would see a change in anything important." Thus he personally seems to believe that high-fructose corn syrup is no worse than other sugars. Willets also recommends drinking water over soft drinks containing sugars or high-fructose corn syrup.[38]

A 2007 study also raised concerns of possible liver damage as a result of HFCS in combination with a high fat diet and a sedentary lifestyle.[39]

Labeling as "natural"

In May 2006, the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) threatened to file a lawsuit against Cadbury Schweppes for labeling 7 Up as "All Natural"[40] or "100% Natural",[41] despite containing high-fructose corn syrup. While the U.S. FDA has no definition of "natural", CSPI claims that HFCS is not a “natural” ingredient due to the high level of processing and the use of at least one genetically modified (GMO) enzyme required to produce it.[42] On January 12, 2007, Cadbury Schweppes agreed to stop calling 7 Up "All Natural".[43] They now call it "100% Natural Flavors".[44]

Snapple (another Cadbury-Schweppes brand) is well-known for being labeled "all-natural", but most varieties contain HFCS. Newman's Own Lemonade and Limeade are labeled as "all-natural" but also contain HFCS. Bread produced by Nature's Own Bread is labeled as having "no artificial preservatives, colors, or flavors", though some varieties contain HFCS.[45] Still, as the U.S. FDA has no general definition of "natural", a company may refer to its product as "all natural", regardless of the ingredients, in most cases. However, FDA does prohibit beverages that contain less than 100% juice from using phrases like 100% natural and 100% pure. 21 CFR 101.35(l) This might apply to 7UP based on vignettes of lemon, lime, or other fruit which could be construed as purporting to contain juice.

Taste

Some beverage manufacturers have returned to cane sugar as a sweetener, maintaining that there is a noticeable difference in taste.

  • Jones Soda announced that the company will launch its 12-ounce soda (January 2007) sweetened with pure cane sugar instead of high-fructose corn syrup. The brand will be called Jones Pure Cane Soda. As of December 2007, online ingredients lists have "inverted cane sugar" as the only sweetener [46]. Inverted sugar is a mixture of sucrose, and fructose and glucose invert[47]. Cane sugar syrup is 100% sucrose, but must be inverted to prevent crystals from forming in the syrup. The amount of inversion can be varied, but fully inverted sugar retains 5% sucrose. Inverted cane sugar differs from HFCS as inverted cane sugar contains sucrose in addition to the glucose and fructose. Also, the ratio of glucose to fructose is different between HFCS and inverted cane sugar. Fully inverted cane sugar may contain 5% sucrose, 47.5% glucose and 47.5% fructose, while HFCS is usually 45% glucose and 55% fructose.
  • Goose Island sodas also use pure sugar and they market this as having a more pure flavor. Their market slogan is "made with 100% real sugar for better taste."
  • Steaz sodas and energy drinks use only organic cane sugar produced using a "single-crystallization process [which] preserves the original flavor... without the use of additives, preservatives, or animal by-products."
  • Vernors was originally sweetened with stevia from 1866 to 1991 and had a "deliciously different" taste. When the FDA banned stevia in 1991, the company replaced stevia in their drinks with HFCS.
  • Sobe has started to use sugar as an ingredient to replace the High Fructose Corn Syrup, and they reflect this on the online ingredients list. Most stores are still pushing the old inventory containing High Fructose Corn Syrup. The new bottles have a different label with a new look and the proud statement "Naturally Sweetened with Sugar."

Some Coca-Cola products have started to use sucrose as indicated by the ingredient list clearly marked on the outside of the box. This practice is not widespread and is dependent on individual processing plants. Coca-Cola does not have an official statement at this time on whether they are or are not using sucrose. Coca Cola products imported from Mexico (commonly available in California and Texas) and kosher for Passover Coca Cola (commonly available in New York before and during Passover) use sucrose as the primary sweetener. "Mexican Coke" is popular in parts of the south, and there is niche market for it in many areas. [48]

One independent Dr Pepper bottler in Dublin, Texas, never switched, giving "Dublin Dr Pepper" a unique taste. Other bottlers have since followed suit, sometimes offering both HFCS and cane sugar sweetened versions in the same market.

Blue Sky Beverage Company (a fully-owned subsidiary of the Hansen Beverage Company) has two lines of sodas which do not use HFCS as a sweetener. Blue Sky Real Sugar is a line of sodas which uses sugar as a sweetener, and Blue Sky Organic Sodas use organic cane juice as a sweetener.

Certain soda processing plants, in areas with a large number of adherents to kosher diets, will make sugar-sweetened batches of soda in the spring season for the Jewish Passover holiday.

References

  1. ^ University of Maryland press release UM. Study - Not Enough Evidence to Indict High Fructose Corn Syrup in Obesity Accessed 2007-11-15
  2. ^ Marshall; et al. (1957). "Enzymatic Conversion of d-Glucose to d-Fructose". Science. 125 (3249): 648. doi:10.1126/science.125.3249.648. PMID 13421660. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  3. ^ High Fructose Corn Syrup is Not Sweeter Than Sugar?
  4. ^ (Bray, 2004 & U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Sugar and Sweetener Yearbook series, Tables 50–52)
  5. ^ (White JS. 1992. Fructose syrup: production, properties and applications, in FW Schenck & RE Hebeda, eds, Starch Hydrolysis Products – Worldwide Technology, Production, and Applications. VCH Publishers, Inc. 177-200)
  6. ^ Pollan, M., The (Agri)Cultural Contradictions Of Obesity, NY Times Magazine, 12 Oct. 2003.
  7. ^ (Hanover LM, White JS. 1993. Manufacturing, composition, and applications of fructose. Am J Clin Nutr 58(suppl 5):724S-732S.)
  8. ^ a b Nutrition information for HFCS at The Calorie Counter Cite error: The named reference "calcount" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  9. ^ Grist ADM, high-fructose corn syrup, and ethanol
  10. ^ Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy
  11. ^ Corn Production/Value
  12. ^ The Great Sugar Shaft
  13. ^ "U.S. per capita food availability – Sugar and sweeteners (individual)". Economic Research Service. 2007-02-15. Retrieved 2007-09-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ^ WHO Oral Health Country/Area Profile Programme
  15. ^ Template:Ja icon http://sugar.lin.go.jp/japan/data/j_html/j_1_01.htm
  16. ^ "Archer Daniels Midland: A Case Study in Corporate Welfare". cato.org. Retrieved 2007-07-12.
  17. ^ "Campaign Contribution Limits". National Conference of State Legislatures. February 11, 2004. Retrieved 2006-11-28.
  18. ^ "Sixty-eighth report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives" (PDF).
  19. ^ "WHO Food Additives Series: 54" (PDF).
  20. ^ Preliminary Data Suggest That Soda And Sweet Drinks Are The Main Source Of Calories In American Diet
  21. ^ Elliott, Sharon S (2004). "Fructose, weight gain, and the insulin resistance syndrome1". Am J Clin Nutr. 79 (4): 537–43. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  22. ^ Forshee; et al. (2007). "A critical examination of the evidence relating high fructose corn syrup and weight gain" (PDF). Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 47 (6): 561–582. doi:10.1080/10408390600846457. PMID 17653981. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  23. ^ a b Melanson; et al. (2007). "Effects of high-fructose corn syrup and sucrose consumption on circulating glucose, insulin, leptin, and ghrelin and on appetite in normal-weight women". Nutrition. 23 (2): 103–12. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2006.11.001. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help) Cite error: The named reference "melanson" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  24. ^ Monsivais; et al. (2007). "Sugars and satiety: does the type of sweetener make a difference?". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 86 (1): 116–123. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  25. ^ Sun and Empie (2007). "Lack of findings for the association between obesity risk and usual sugar-sweetened beverage consumption in adults - A primary analysis of databases of CSFII-1989-1991, CSFII-1994-1998, NHANES III, and combined NHANES 1999-2002". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 45 (8): 1523–1536. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2007.02.012.
  26. ^ Soda Warning? New Study Supports Link Between Diabetes, High-fructose Corn Syrup
  27. ^ a b "Diabetes fears over corn syrup in soda". New Scientist. 04 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-17. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  28. ^ Theresa Waldron Sugary Sodas High in Diabetes-Linked Compound
  29. ^ Bantle, John P. (2000). "Effects of dietary fructose on plasma lipids in healthy subjects". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 72 (5): 1128–1134. PMID 11063439. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  30. ^ "Whey Protein and Fructose, an Unhealthy Combination". Enerex Botanicals. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
  31. ^ Jurgens, Hella (2005). "Consuming Fructose-sweetened Beverages Increases Body Adiposity in Mice" (abstract). Obesity Res. 13: 1146–1156. doi:10.1038/oby.2005.136. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  32. ^ Faeh D, Minehira K, Schwarz JM, Periasamy R, Park S, Tappy L (2005). "Effect of fructose overfeeding and fish oil administration on hepatic de novo lipogenesis and insulin sensitivity in healthy men". DIABETES. 54 (7): 1907–1913. doi:10.2337/diabetes.54.7.1907. PMID 15983189. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ Mariniello, J. Martin (2007-11-28). "Weight Loss — Revealing The Hidden Secrets". Obesity Factors In Current Society. Retrieved 2007-11-28.
  34. ^ online abstracts2006 internet forfait haut at eb2006-online.com
  35. ^ Similarities Between HFCS and Sucrose Revealed
  36. ^ Bray, George A. (2004). "Consumption of high-fructose corn syrup in beverages may play a role in the epidemic of obesity". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 79 (4): 537–543. PMID 15051594. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  37. ^ Warner, Melanie (July 2, 2006). "A Sweetener With a Bad Rap". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-11-17. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  38. ^ Coca-Cola & The American Beverage Ass. to sell the Brooklyn Bridge [1]
  39. ^ “Supersize Me” Mice Research Offers Grim Warning for America’s Fast Food Consumers
  40. ^ William Campbell Douglass II (2006-06-27). "The new, "all-natural" 7Up soft drink". Retrieved 2007-09-24. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  41. ^ Howard, Theresa (2006-04-20). "Food, beverage marketers seek healthier images". USAToday. Retrieved 2007-09-24. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  42. ^ "CSPI to Sue Cadbury Schweppes over "All Natural" 7UP". Center for Science in the Public Interest. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
  43. ^ Gardner, Steve (January 14, 2007). "CSPI's Litigation Project Forces Change By Two Major Food Companies". Consumer Law and Policy Blog. Retrieved 2007-11-17. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  44. ^ "7UP, Now 100% Natural Flavors". Dr Pepper/Seven Up. 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-24.
  45. ^ Nature’s Own Honey Wheat
  46. ^ Jones Soda online ingredients list (one example) http://www.jonessoda.com/files/crushedmelon_us_i.html
  47. ^ "What is Inverted Sugar," Albert Uster Imports, Inc., http://www.auiswiss.com/culin_menu_pastry.cfm?catid=701#article2
  48. ^ "Is Mexican Coke the Real Thing?" San Diego Tribune, Nov 9 2004
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