Hijab
- Note: The word "Hijab" is often used in news reports and common use, by both Muslims and non-Muslims, to refer to a headscarf. This specific use is discussed below. In Islamic scholarship, hijab has a larger meaning: dressing modestly. This article discusses the broader meaning of the term.
Hijab (Arabic: حجاب) is the Arabic term for dressing modestly. The Qur'an, the holy book of Islam, orders believers to dress in a so-called "modest" fashion.
The Qur'anic injunctions
- Verse 33:59 orders believers to "draw their cloaks close round them (when they go out)".
- Verse 24.31 reads: "And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their veils over their bosoms and not display their beauty except to their husbands, their fathers, their husband's fathers, their sons, their husbands' sons, their brothers or their brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or their women, or the (female) slaves whom their right hands possess, or old male servants who lack vigour, or small children who have no sense of the shame of sex; and that they should not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments. And O ye Believers! turn ye all together towards God, that ye may attain Bliss."
Hadith relating to dress
In one tradition, the Prophet Muhammad is quoted as saying: "...If the woman reaches the age of puberty, no part of her body should be seen but this --- and he pointed to his face and hands." Other details can be seen in HIjab: Question and Answers
Problems of interpretation
These injunctions may have been clear to the earliest Muslims, of the 7th century, but their exact meaning is less clear to later Muslims. We do not know precisely what 7th century Arab men and women wore, or what was then considered modest or immodest. How do these rules apply to Muslims in later times, in different societies, wearing different clothing?
Scholarly interpretation of the injunctions
Various Islamic scholars have interpreted the meaning of hijab in different ways.
Although certain general standards are widely accepted, there has been little interest in narrowly prescribing what constitutes modest dress for Muslim men. Most mainstream scholars say that men should cover themselves from the navel to the knees; a minority say that the hadith, or oral traditions, that are held to require this are weak and possibly inauthentic. They argue that there are hadith indicating that the Islamic prophet Muhammad wore loose clothing that uncovered his thigh when riding camels, and hold that if Muhammad believed that this was permissible, then it is surely permissible for other Muslim males. As a practical matter, however, the opinion that Muslim men must cover themselves between the navel and the knees is predominant, and most Muslims believe that a man who fails to observe this requirement during salat must perform the prayer again, properly covered, in order for it to be valid.
More detailed scholarly attention has been focused on prescribing female dress. Most scholars agree that the basic requirements are that when in the presence of someone of the opposite sex other than a close family member (mahram), a woman should cover her body, and walk and dress in a way which does not draw sexual attention to her. Some scholars go so far as specify exactly which areas of the body must be covered. In many cases, this is everything save the face and hands. A minority view requires everything save the eyes to be covered; this view, like all such rulings, does not exist in a vacuum, but is part of an ongoing dynamic involving both scholarly influence and actual social custom.
In the presence of mahrams, a woman should at least cover her sexual organs. In private, in the presence of her husband, there are no requirements for coverage (and, indeed, eroticism is promoted in this context).
Most scholars agree that the rules of hijab can be waived if following them would result in risk of death or extreme hardship. (See the article on ikrah, or physical compulsion.) However, others disagree. In one incident in 2002, 15 female students were forced to burn to death rather than emerge in public view from a burning school in Saudi Arabia.
Cultural practices and controversy
Just as Muslims scholars differ on what should be covered, or what may be exposed, Muslim communities have interpreted "hijab" in many ways. Different Muslims have different practices according to their interpretation, and according to their circumstances. Some women choose freely to adopt very conservative interpretations, and even state they enjoy the lifestyle this provides. Other women, however, adopt a more modest style of dress because of pressure from others. Such pressure can be extreme; there are many cases of Muslims carrying out honor killings against members of their own families for perceived violations of "hijab" standards, despite this practice's unlawfulness in Islam [1]. Critics of conservative dress point out that while many claim the hijab does not signify oppression, those for whom it does are not necessarily free to state their true views on the matter, and certainly increased use of conservative dress strengthens the hand of those who would prefer that all women (or at least all Muslim women) dress conservatively, including those who would use coercion to achieve that end.
History of hijab
Contemporary Islamic dress
Like most people, Muslim men and women generally dress according to the custom of the country in which they live, modifying styles as necessary in order to observe whatever degree of modesty they or their community think appropriate. This requirement usually falls lightly on men, wherever they live. Muslim women, however, must sometimes make difficult choices.
In some Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia or Iran, women must wear the national version of Islamic dress or face punishment by religious police. (See Strict versions of women's modest dress, below.)
In most Muslim countries there are no such laws, but family and society still expect a woman to dress modestly, as locally defined. Usually this is some variation of long-sleeved dresses, long blouses or pants, and a scarf or veil over the hair. Rebels will face family pressure and social scorn.
Tradition is strongest in the countryside. Cities are usually more relaxed and urban women can dress in the latest Western styles without fear of public taunts.
Muslim women living in predominantly non-Muslim countries may face social pressures to dress like their schoolmates or workmates, on the one hand, and to dress for their families and their mosques, on the other hand. The situation is complicated by rising prejudice against Muslims in many countries, so that a woman wearing obviously "Muslim" garb may have to endure public harassment. Conversely non-Muslim women living in predominantly Muslim countries and not observing local dress customs also endure harassment.
"Modest dress" can also pose a problem when school, military, or work uniforms are required. These uniforms may be "modest" by local standards, but some Muslim women feel that they are too revealing. Sometimes a compromise can be negotiated; sometimes authorities insist that local mores be followed. A case in point is the recent (2004) furor over the French government's ban on religious wear (large crosses, yarmulkes, turbans, and headscarves) in public schools. Many French Muslims felt that this ruling was in fact directed against Muslim schoolgirls who wore headscarves. However, it should be noted that polls showed that a majority of Muslim women supported the ban.
Women can also choose to wear styles that are more ostentatiously modest than local mores require, usually as a sign of Islamic enthusiasm and exuberant piety. A girl who wore jeans and T-shirts last week may turn up in black robes and full face veil. Some Western converts to Islam, such as Sultaana Freeman, have taken such enthusiasm to extremes, refusing to show their faces for identity-card photos and facing fines and jail sentences as a result. Most Islamic scholars deprecate this kind of attention-seeking behavior.
Strict versions of women's modest dress
A number of cultures, principally in Arab countries and parts of South Asia, take the requirement for female modesty beyond that accepted by other Muslim communities.
In these cultures, this means that women must be completely covered with veils or cloaks when outside their home.
- Afghanistan's burqa is the most extreme example of this belief: not even a woman's eyes are visible. Typically, a burka is composed of many yards of light material, pleated around a cap that fits over the top of the head. There is an embroidered openwork grille where the burka passes over the eyes. Under the Taliban, the burka was obligatory. Under the current government it may or may not be worn.
- The Saudi Arabian version of modest dress is composed of abaya or loose robe, hijab or headcovering, and niqab or face veil. The Saudi niqab usually leaves a long open slot for the eyes; the slot is held together by a string or narrow strip of cloth. Roaming religious police enforce female modesty. Abaya and hijab are required; the niqab is optional.
A relatively less strict (though still considerably restrictive) interpretation is that of the current Iranian government, which requires women to wear loose-fitting coats or cloaks in public, as well as a head scarf that covers the hair.
Current use of the word "hijab" in media and activism
The word "hijab" is frequently used for the headscarf worn by many Muslim women around the world with various forms of dress, from jeans-and-shirts to salwar kameez, saris, and business suits. It most often refers to a square scarf which is folded diagonally and worn over the head to cover the hair, ears and throat, but not the face.
The word used in the Qu'ran for a headscarf or veil is khimar (Arabic: خمار). Many people argue that this word for a headscarf should be used instead of hijab. Interpreting hijab ONLY as a headscarf is incorrect. However, this usage is extremely common in Western societies. The controversy over the wearing of "hijab" in the context of the French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools refers only to the headscarf, not to modest dress in general.
See also
- Veil
- List of hats and headgear
- Tzeniut
- Habit, the distinctive clothing of certain religious orders
References
- El Guindi, Fadwa -- Veil: Modesty, Privacy, and Resistance, Berg, 1999.