Tōyō kanji

The tōyō kanji (当用漢字, "kanji for general use") are the result of a reform of the characters of Chinese origin in the Japanese written language. They were the first kanji declared "official" by the Japanese Ministry of Education (文部科学省) on November 16, 1946 (Shōwa 21).

History

Thousands of kanji characters were in use in various writing systems, leading to great difficulties for those learning written Japanese. Additionally, several characters had identical meanings but were written differently to each other, further increasing complexity.

Prior to World War II, language scholars were concerned with these problems in learning fluent Japanese. One of their more radical proposals was to abolish the Chinese kanji characters entirely and make use of an entirely phonetic system. When the Ministry of Education tried to implement this reform, however, it encountered savage opposition from scientists, writers and the general public, and the idea was finally dropped.

Reform

After the Japanese defeat in the war, rejected traditional values and a state of general confusion allowed scholars to bring about written language reforms, principally the tōyō kanji.

The Ministry decided to minimise the number of kanji by choosing the most commonly used kanji, along with simplified kanji appearing regularly in contemporary literature, to form the tōyō kanji. This was an integral part of the postwar reform of Japanese national writing.

This was meant as a preparation for re-introducing their previous unsuccessful reform abolishing Chinese characters. Although the postwar timing meant no public debate was held on the future of the Japanese written language, the defenders of the original kanji system considered and accepted the tōyō kanji as a reasonable compromise. Since this compromise could not then be withdrawn in favour of more radical reform, discussion of kanji abolition ended. Thirty-five years passed before further reforms were brought to the Japanese written form.

The table of the pronunciations of the kanji was published in 1948 and the list of characters in 1949.

In 1981, the Ministry of Education decided to replace the tōyō kanji with a more flexible system, leading to the publication of the jōyō kanji. This rendered the tōyō kanji obsolete.

Applications and limitations

Rather than being a simple list of the kanji, the reform published by the Ministry for Education also contains clear rules for the use of the tōyō kanji.

The foreword of the document states that:

• the tōyō kanji must be used in legal and governmental documents, newspapers, magazines and by the public in general.
• if one wants to write a word whose kanji do not form part of this list in an unspecified document, one must change it for another word or else write it in kana.
• the pronouns, conjunctions, interjections, adverbs, verb auxiliaries, articles and postpositions must be written as often as possible in kana.
• words of foreign origin must be written in kana.
• in general, the furigana should not be used.
• for technical terms, it is desirable to use the tōyō kanji as a base and to carry out necessary arrangements (the objective was not to make it necessary to stop use of all kanji and replace them with hiragana, this choice being left with the specialist in question. On the other hand, it was suggested to use characters belonging to the tōyō kanji in technical work and research tasks as much as possible).
• kanji when mixed with proper names, does not form part of the objective of the limitation of the use of the kanji. (There were many place names or people whose kanji were not included in the tōyō kanji but that did not seem to be a problem to the Ministers of the time, who already knew all these characters).
• the names of animals, plants and the names and places of another country, except for China, would have to be retranscribed in kana from the original pronunciation, except for the names of certain countries whose kanji are in traditional use (e.g. the United States, the United Kingdom, etc).
• finally, the list of characters is standardized, and the table of the official pronunciations of the kanji is under development.

A problem: "mazekaki"

Because the majority of character-based words are composed of two (or more) kanji, many words were left with one character included in the Tōyō kanji, and the other character missing. In this case, the recommendation was to write the included part in kanji and the excluded part in kana. These words were called mazekaki (交ぜ書き, "mixed characters"). This manner of writing was considered by conservative critics as characteristic of the liberals brainwashed by the policies from the American occupation, and proof of the destruction of Japanese traditional culture. Framed from a less judgemental perspective, this problem of mixed characters can be seen as due a lack of sufficient preparation of the list, as well as insufficient thought to the implications of the simplifications; perhaps it was because of a hurried timeframe for promulgating the Tōyō kanji after the end of WW II.

List of the 1850 tōyō kanji

一　丁　七　 丈　三　上　 下　不　且　 世　丘　丙　 中　丸　丹　 主　久　乏　 乗　乙　九　 乳　乾　乱　 了　事　二　 互　五　井　 亜　亡　交　 享　京　人　 仁　今　介　 仕　他　付　 代　令　以　 仰　仲　件　 任　企　伏　 伐　休　伯　 伴　伸　伺　 似　但　位　 低　住　佐　 何　仏　作　 佳　使　来　 例　侍　供　 依　侮　侯　 侵　便　係　 促　俊　俗　 保　信　修　 俳　俵　併　 倉　個　倍　 倒　候　借　 倣　値　倫　 仮　偉　偏　 停　健　側　 偶　傍　傑　 備　催　伝　 債　傷　傾　 働　像　僚　 偽　僧　価　 儀　億　倹　 儒　償　優　 元　兄　充　 兆　先　光　 克　免　児　 入　内　全　 両　八　公　 六　共　兵　 具　典　兼　 冊　再　冒　 冗　冠　冬　 冷　准　凍　 凝　凡　凶　 出　刀　刃　 分　切　刈　 刊　刑　列　 初　判　別　 利　到　制　 刷　券　刺　 刻　則　削　 前　剖　剛　 剰　副　割　 創　劇　剤　 剣　力　功　 加　劣　助　 努　効　劾　 勅　勇　勉　 動　勘　務　 勝　労　募　 勢　勤　勲　 励　勧　勺　 匁　包　化　 北　匠　匹　 匿　区　十　 千　升　午　 半　卑　卒　 卓　協　南　 博　占　印　 危　却　卵　 巻　卸　即　 厘　厚　原　 去　参　又　 及　友　反　 叔　取　受　 口　古　句　 叫　召　可　 史　右　司　 各　合　吉　 同　名　后　 吏　吐　向　 君　吟　否　 含　呈　呉　 吸　吹　告　 周　味　呼　 命　和　咲　 哀　品　員　 哲　唆　唐　 唯　唱　商　 問　啓　善　 喚　喜　喪　 喫　単　嗣　 嘆　器　噴　 嚇　厳　嘱　 囚　四　回　 因　困　固　 圏　国　囲　 園　円　図　 団　土　在　 地　坂　均　 坊　坑　坪　 垂　型　埋　 城　域　執　 培　基　堂　 堅　堤　堪　 報　場　塊　 塑　塔　塗　 境　墓　墜　 増　墨　堕　 墳　墾　壁　 壇　圧　塁　 壊　士　壮　 壱　寿　夏　 夕　外　多　 夜　夢　大　 天　太　夫　 央　失　奇　 奉　奏　契　 奔　奥　奪　 奨　奮　女　 奴　好　如　 妃　妊　妙　 妥　妨　妹　 妻　姉　始　 姓　委　姫　 姻　姿　威　 娘　娯　娠　 婆　婚　婦　 婿　媒　嫁　 嫡　嬢　子　 孔　字　存　 孝　季　孤　 孫　学　宅　 宇　守　安　 完　宗　官　 宙　定　宜　 客　宣　室　 宮　宰　害　 宴　家　容　 宿　寂　寄　 密　富　寒　 察　寡　寝　 実　寧　審　 写　寛　寮　 宝　寸　寺　 封　射　将　 専　尉　尊　 尋　対　導　 小　少　就　 尺　尼　尾　 尿　局　居　 届　屈　屋　 展　層　履　 属　山　岐　 岩　岸　峠　 峰　島　峡　 崇　崩　岳　 川　州　巡　 巣　工　左　 巧　巨　差　 己　市　布　 帆　希　帝　 帥　師　席　 帳　帯　常　 帽　幅　幕　 幣　干　平　 年　幸　幹　 幻　幼　幽　 幾　床　序　 底　店　府　 度　座　庫　 庭　庶　康　 庸　廉　廊　 廃　広　庁　 延　廷　建　 弊　式　弓　 弔　引　弟　 弦　弧　弱　 張　強　弾　 形　彩　彫　 彰　影　役　 彼　往　征　 待　律　後　 徐　径　徒　 得　従　御　 復　循　微　 徴　徳　徹　 心　必　忌　 忍　志　忘　 忙　忠　快　 念　怒　怖　 思　怠　急　 性　怪　恒　 恐　恥　恨　 恩　恭　息　 悦　悔　悟　 患　悲　悼　 情　惑　惜　 恵　悪　惰　 悩　想　愁　 愉　意　愚　 愛　感　慎　 慈　態　慌　 慕　惨　慢　 慣　慨　慮　 慰　慶　憂　 憎　憤　憩　 憲　憶　憾　 懇　応　懲　 懐　懸　恋　 成　我　戒　 戦　戯　戸　 房　所　扇　 手　才　打　 扱　扶　批　 承　技　抄　 抑　投　抗　 折　抱　抵　 押　抽　払　 拍　拒　拓　 抜　拘　拙　 招　拝　括　 拷　拾　持　 指　振　捕　 捨　掃　授　 掌　排　掘　 掛　採　探　 接　控　推　 措　描　提　 揚　換　握　 掲　揮　援　 損　揺　捜　 搬　携　搾　 摘　摩　撤　 撮　撲　擁　 択　撃　操　 担　拠　擦　 挙　擬　拡　 摂　支　収　 改　攻　放　 政　故　叙　 教　敏　救　 敗　敢　散　 敬　敵　敷　 数　整　文　 斗　料　斜　 斤　斥　新　 断　方　施　 旅　旋　族　 旗　既　日　 旨　早　旬　 昇　明　易　 昔　星　映　 春　昨　昭　 是　時　晩　 昼　普　景　 晴　晶　暇　 暑　暖　暗　 暫　暮　暴　 暦　曇　暁　 曜　曲　更　 書　替　最　 会　月　有　 服　朕　朗　 望　朝　期　 木　未　末　 本　札　朱　 机　朽　材　 村　束　杯　 東　松　板　 析　林　枚　 果　枝　枯　 架　柄　某　 染　柔　査　 柱　柳　校　 株　核　根　 格　栽　桃　 案　桑　梅　 条　械　棄　 棋　棒　森　 棺　植　業　 極　栄　構　 概　楽　楼　 標　枢　模　 様　樹　橋　 機　横　検　 桜　欄　権　 次　欲　欺　 款　歌　欧　 歓　止　正　 歩　武　歳　 歴　帰　死　 殉　殊　殖　 残　段　殺　 殿　殴　母　 毎　毒　比　 毛　氏　民　 気　水　氷　 永　求　汗　 汚　江　池　 決　汽　沈　 没　沖　河　 沸　油　治　 沼　沿　況　 泉　泊　泌　 法　波　泣　 注　泰　泳　 洋　洗　津　 活　派　流　 浦　浪　浮　 浴　海　浸　 消　渉　液　 涼　淑　涙　 淡　浄　深　 混　清　浅　 添　減　渡　 測　港　渇　 湖　湯　源　 準　温　溶　 滅　滋　滑　 滞　滴　満　 漁　漂　漆　 漏　演　漢　 漫　漸　潔　 潜　潤　潮　 渋　澄　沢　 激　濁　濃　 湿　済　濫　 浜　滝　瀬　 湾　火　灰　 災　炊　炎　 炭　烈　無　 焦　然　煮　 煙　照　煩　 熟　熱　燃　 燈　焼　営　 燥　爆　炉　 争　為　爵　 父　片　版　 牛　牧　物　 牲　特　犠　 犬　犯　状　 狂　狩　狭　 猛　猶　獄　 独　獲　猟　 獣　献　玄　 率　玉　王　 珍　珠　班　 現　球　理　 琴　環　璽　 甘　生　産　 用　田　由　 甲　申　男　 町　界　畑　 畔　留　畜　 畝　略　番　 画　異　当　 畳　疎　疑　 疫　疲　疾　 病　症　痘　 痛　痢　痴　 療　癖　登　 発　白　百　 的　皆　皇　 皮　盆　益　 盛　盗　盟　 尽　監　盤　 目　盲　直　 相　盾　省　 看　真　眠　 眼　睡　督　 瞬　矛　矢　 知　短　石　 砂　砲　破　 研　硝　硫　 硬　碁　砕　 碑　確　磁　 礁　礎　示　 社　祈　祉　 秘　祖　祝　 神　祥　票　 祭　禁　禍　 福　禅　礼　 秀　私　秋　 科　秒　租　 秩　移　税　 程　稚　種　 称　稲　稿　 穀　積　穂　 穏　穫　穴　 究　空　突　 窒　窓　窮　 窯　窃　立　 並　章　童　 端　競　竹　 笑　笛　符　 第　筆　等　 筋　筒　答　 策　箇　算　 管　箱　節　 範　築　篤　 簡　簿　籍　 米　粉　粒　 粗　粘　粧　 粋　精　糖　 糧　系　糾　 紀　約　紅　 紋　納　純　 紙　級　紛　 素　紡　索　 紫　累　細　 紳　紹　紺　 終　組　結　 絶　絞　絡　 給　統　糸　 絹　経　緑　 維　綱　網　 綿　緊　緒　 線　締　縁　 編　緩　緯　 練　縛　県　 縫　縮　縦　 総　績　繁　 織　繕　絵　 繭　繰　継　 続　繊　欠　 罪　置　罰　 署　罷　羊　 美　着　群　 義　羽　翁　 翌　習　翼　 老　考　者　 耐　耕　耗　 耳　聖　聞　 声　職　聴　 粛　肉　肖　 肝　肥　肩　 肪　肯　育　 肺　胃　背　 胎　胞　胴　 胸　能　脂　 脅　脈　脚　 脱　脹　腐　 腕　脳　腰　 腸　腹　膚　 膜　膨　胆　 臓　臣　臨　 自　臭　至　 致　台　与　 興　旧　舌　 舎　舗　舞　 舟　航　般　 舶　船　艇　 艦　良　色　 芋　芝　花　 芳　芽　苗　 若　苦　英　 茂　茶　草　 荒　荷　荘　 茎　菊　菌　 菓　菜　華　 万　落　葉　 著　葬　蒸　 蓄　薄　薦　 薪　薫　蔵　 芸　薬　藩　 虐　処　虚　 虜　虞　号　 蚊　融　虫　 蚕　蛮　血　 衆　行　術　 街　衝　衛　 衡　衣　表　 衰　衷　袋　 被　裁　裂　 裏　裕　補　 装　裸　製　 複　襲　西　 要　覆　見　 規　視　親　 覚　覧　観　 角　解　触　 言　訂　計　 討　訓　託　 記　訟　訪　 設　許　訴　 診　詐　詔　 評　詞　詠　 試　詩　詰　 話　該　詳　 誇　誌　認　 誓　誕　誘　 語　誠　誤　 説　課　調　 談　請　論　 諭　諮　諸　 諾　謀　謁　 謄　謙　講　 謝　謡　謹　 証　識　譜　 警　訳　議　 護　誉　読　 変　譲　谷　 豆　豊　豚　 象　豪　予　 貝　貞　負　 財　貢　貧　 貨　販　貫　 責　貯　弐　 貴　買　貸　 費　貿　賀　 賃　賄　資　 賊　賓　賜　 賞　賠　賢　 売　賦　質　 頼　購　贈　 賛　赤　赦　 走　赴　起　 超　越　趣　 足　距　跡　 路　跳　踊　 踏　践　躍　 身　車　軌　 軍　軒　軟　 軸　較　載　 軽　輝　輩　 輪　輸　轄　 転　辛　弁　 辞　辱　農　 込　迅　迎　 近　返　迫　 迭　述　迷　 追　退　送　 逃　逆　透　 逐　途　通　 速　造　連　 逮　週　進　 逸　遂　遇　 遊　運　遍　 過　道　達　 違　逓　遠　 遣　適　遭　 遅　遵　遷　 選　遺　避　 還　辺　邦　 邪　邸　郊　 郎　郡　部　 郭　郵　都　 郷　配　酒　 酢　酬　酪　 酵　酷　酸　 酔　醜　医　 醸　釈　里　 重　野　量　 金　針　鈍　 鈴　鉛　銀　 銃　銅　銑　 銘　鋭　鋼　 録　錘　錠　 銭　錯　錬　 鍛　鎖　鎮　 鏡　鐘　鉄　 鋳　鑑　鉱　 長　門　閉　 開　閑　間　 閣　閥　閲　 関　防　阻　 附　降　限　 陛　院　陣　 除　陪　陰　 陳　陵　陶　 陥　陸　陽　 隆　隊　階　 隔　際　障　 隣　随　険　 隠　隷　隻　 雄　雅　集　 雇　雌　双　 雑　離　難　 雨　雪　雲　 零　雷　電　 需　震　霜　 霧　露　霊　 青　静　非　 面　革　音　 韻　響　頂　 項　順　預　 頒　領　頭　 題　額　顔　 願　類　顧　 顕　風　飛　 翻　食　飢　 飲　飯　飼　 飽　飾　養　 餓　余　館　 首　香　馬　 駐　騎　騰　 騒　駆　験　 驚　駅　骨　 髄　体　高　 髪　闘　鬼　 魂　魅　魔　 魚　鮮　鯨　 鳥　鳴　鶏　 塩　麗　麦　 麻　黄　黒　 黙　点　党　 鼓　鼻　斎　 歯　齢

External links

• Pronunciation of the Kanji (in Japanese)
• Statement of the Ministry of Education from 1946 (in Japanese)
• Official table of the characters (in Japanese)