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Fracking in the United Kingdom

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Although Hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom has been common in North Sea oil and gas fields since the late 1970s,[1] and has been used in about 200 British onshore oil and gas wells since the early 1980s,[2] the technique did not attract public attention until its use was proposed for onshore shale gas wells in 2007.[3] According to a 2011 report of the Energy and Climate Change Select Committee, "Shale gas resources in the UK could be considerable—particularly offshore—but are unlikely to be a "game changer" to the same extent as they have been in the US, where the shale gas revolution has led to a reduction in natural gas prices."[4] The Committee's chairperson, Tim Yeo, has since revised his personal opinion, however, and now argues shale gas is a "game changer" that could "transform the UK's energy independence".[5][6] Interest in fracking comes just as imports of gas to the UK have surpassed domestic production for the first time since the 1960s.[7]

In the United Kingdom, as in other countries—and in particular the United States, where the industry is most advanced and extensive—induced hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, has generated a considerable amount of controversy. The process was unofficially suspended in the UK between June 2011 and April 2012 after triggering small earthquakes, but a report into the incidents recommended the process be given nationwide clearance. The report did not consider at fracking's possible effects on renewables and the UK's efforts to tackle climate change, nor the issue of environmental safety, with discussion of the chemicals used precluded by the companies withholding precise information "for commercial reasons".[8] A review into these issues was carried out by the Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering.[9] According to Robert Mair, chairman of the review, "well integrity is of key importance but the most common areas of concern, such as the causation of earthquakes with any significant impact or fractures reaching and contaminating drinking water, were very low risk."[10] As of 2013 the government was solidly behind development of a shale gas industry and was offering favorable tax treatment.[11]

Background

The surge of interest in fracking in the UK can be traced to 2007, when Cuadrilla Resources[12] was granted a licence for shale gas exploration along the coast of Lancashire.[13] Cuadrilla has American-Australian-British ownership, though close ties have developed between China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) and one of Cuadrilla's backers.[14] The company's first fracking job was performed in March 2011 near Blackpool.[15] Other companies, including Eden Energy,[16] UK Methane Ltd, Coastal Oil and Gas, Celtique Energie,[17] and IGas Energy,[18] have since obtained exploration licences, with test drilling being carried out in Somerset, Glamorgan, Cheshire and other locations.[19][20][21][22]

Areas with shale gas potential

Main article: Shale gas in the United Kingdom

The Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) has identified large areas of eastern and southern England as having the "best shale gas potential":

The main area identified runs from just south of Middlesbrough in a crescent through East Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Buckinghamshire and the Cotswolds to Somerset and Wiltshire. It then turns along the South Coast and Downs, including most of Dorset, Hampshire, Sussex, Surrey and Kent. Shale gas sites are under investigation in the Sussex commuter belt, near Haywards Heath, the Mendip Hills, south of Bath, in Kent, Lincolnshire, south Wales, Staffordshire and Cheshire, as well as more sites near the existing find in Lancashire.[22]

Environmental and other concerns

See also: Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing

Water contamination and depletion

The British Geological Survey, in reviewing the US experience with hydraulic fracturing of shale formations, observed: "... where the problems are genuinely attributable to shale gas operations, the problem is with poor well design and construction, rather than anything distinctive to shale gas."[3]

In January 2011, a few months prior to Cuadrilla's inaugural fracking, a Tyndall Centre study recommended "a precautionary approach" to the activity until the growing number of environmental dangers were more fully understood and taken account of. Tyndall pointed to the US, where concern exists that fracking poses (amongst other things) a "significant risk of ground and surface water contamination", noting the UK's situation was further complicated by its high population density, meaning any wells associated with shale gas extraction will be relatively close to population centres. It also observed that the vast amounts of water used during the process "could put considerable pressure on [local] water supplies".[23] The Environment Agency, the government body tasked with assessing any impact on water supplies, does not yet know exactly what is the safe distance required between a fracking well and groundwater supplies.[24]

For people living in drier areas, in East Kent, for example, this last point has added another layer of concern about fracking and water supplies.[25] East Kent falls within the Environment Agency's Southern Region, the third driest region of England and Wales,[26] where "water is a scarce and often over-committed resource".[27]

Earthquake risk

The DECC dismissed the Tyndall Centre study's concerns because Cuadrilla had assured it there was no appreciable risk of adverse environmental impacts from fracking.[28] Cuadrilla voluntarily suspended[29][30] its operations just a few months later in June, however, after fracking activity caused two small earthquakes in Lancashire,[31] one of 2.3 magnitude (large enough to be felt by people) and the other of 1.5.[22] The company's temporary halt was pending DECC guidance on the conclusions of a study being carried out by the British Geological Survey and Keele University,[29] which concluded in April 2012 that fracking was safe and could be used nationwide.[32]

Cuadrilla commissioned an investigation into the seismic activity, which concluded that the tremors were probably caused by the lubrication of an existing fault plane by the unintended spread of fracking fluid below ground.[33][34][35] Cuadrilla's estimates of how far up along faults fracking fluid could migrate during such incidents reinforced concerns among campaigners in Balcombe that, if accidental lubrication of an undetected fault line could and did occur there, it might result in disastrous contamination of the area's water table.[36][37]

Researchers at Durham University noted that earthquakes triggered by hydraulic fracturing are only rarely greater than Richter Magnitude 1. There are only three known cases of hydraulic fracturing-induced quakes strong enough to be felt by humans at the surface.: British Columbia, Canada; Oklahoma, USA; and Lancashire.[38]

Regulatory issues

Even as Cuadrilla began fracking, it emerged that the results of its activities, as well as the company's estimates of how much gas it could extract, would be kept confidential for four years, as with other oil and gas exploration licenses.[13] Six months later, a leaked series of letters between government officials and Cuadrilla revealed that the UK's fracking industry will face only minimal regulation; for example, companies were not being expected to monitor, measure or analyse the polluted liquids that come back up the boreholes and that must be disposed of elsewhere.[39] The leaked correspondence also showed, amongst other things, that the government had thus far looked into neither the issue of fracking and climate change, nor the effects of the industry on renewables.[39] According to The Guardian, even Cuadrilla wants better regulation of the UK fracking industry,[39] but the Energy Secretary Charles Hendry is not in favour.[20]

The fracking controversy presents problems for the Conservative Party which has conflicting constituencies representing, as it does, both corporate interests and the well-to-do who reside in the English countryside. The party cannot characterize the countryside as an appropriate sacrifice area.[40]

Opposition

In September 2011, with licences having been granted to two energy companies for exploratory drilling in Somerset, Bath and North East Somerset Council voiced concern that, should the test drilling yield a significant find of shale gas, any subsequent fracking could contaminate Bath's famous hot springs.[21] Similar worries about future fracking have been aired in a number of other places, including the Vale of Glamorgan and Woodnesborough, Kent.[41][42] Industry assurances about its forthcoming plans were tarnished in January 2012, though, when Cuadrilla Resources came under fire for its categorical denials of plans to frack near Balcombe after documents from parent company AJ Lucas materialised appearing to indicate the complete opposite.[43]

The campaign to prohibit Coastal Oil and Gas from test drilling at the Llandow Industrial Estate, in the Vale of Glamorgan, met with initial success after local councillors unanimously refused the company's plans, though Coastal immediately indicated it would exercise its right of appeal.[44] Residents feared that successful exploration would be the prelude for fracking.[42] The basis of the Council's decision was a letter from Welsh Water stating that there was "a very small risk" of contamination of its reserve groundwater sites from exploratory drilling.[45] The rejection came despite the Council being told that, strictly from a planning point of view, there were no "reasonable or sustainable grounds" to refuse, and despite the drilling application containing no explicit mention of fracking. The company had additionally claimed that, since the "gas shales in the Vale are not as thick as elsewhere", any discoveries would be "very unlikely" to require fracking for extraction.[44]

The company decided to appeal to the Welsh Government, rather than undertake legal action against the local authority,[46] and a public enquiry is set to begin in May 2012.[47] Coastal's chances of success at the enquiry were boosted by Kent County Council approval of the company's near-identical plans for preliminary drilling in Woodnesborough,[42] and were increased to near certainty after Welsh Water effectively retracted its previous risk assessment.[47]

There are now a number of protest groups,[48] which range from the nationwide Frack Off, to local ones such as Residents Action on Fylde Fracking,[49] Ribble Estuary Against Fracking,[50] NO Fracking in Sussex[51] and The Vale Says No![52]

Green Party leader Caroline Lucas has proposed an early day motion on fracking that calls for a moratorium.[53] In the UK and Europe, hydrocarbons are considered government property, so opposition to fracking is less easily bought off than in the US, where landowners are given production royalties.[54][55]

Industry response

In arguing its case, Cuadrilla contrasts its approach with the one taken in the United States, claiming that only three chemicals—a polyacrylamide lubricant commonly found in cosmetics, hydrochloric acid, and a biocide used to purify drinking water—will be used in the UK, compared with the hundreds that can be used across the Atlantic; that it has invested in more expensive, better equipment than that used by companies operating in the US;[56] that its wells have three layers of pipe casing to line the wells, whereas many American ones only have two; that the barrier between the gas escaping up the pipe and ground water is thicker; and that drilling fluids will be collected in closed steel tanks, rather than in lined earthen pits, as often happens in the States.[54] The company also relies heavily on industry analysis of a European Climate Foundation report, though the analysis is rejected by the ECF itself.[56] According to Cuadrilla's communication advisor, "Gasland (the US documentary about shale gas) really changed everything. . . . Before that, shale gas was not seen as routinely controversial."[56]

See also

References

  1. ^ Detlef Mader, 1989, Hydraulic Proppant Fracturing and Gravel Packing, Elsevier, p.174
  2. ^ The Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering, Shale gas extraction in the UK, June 2012.
  3. ^ a b British Geological Survey (2010,republished 2012), The Unconventional Hydrocarbon Resources of Britain's Onshore Basins - Shale Gas (PDF), Department of Energy & Climate Change, retrieved 17 April 2013 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  4. ^ House of Commons Energy and Climate Change Committee (23 May 2011), Shale Gas: Fifth Report of Session 2010–12, Volume I (PDF), London: The Stationery Office, retrieved 26 February 2012 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
  5. ^ Tom Whipple (17 February 2012). "Controversial gas mining technique given green light by US expert study". The Times. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
  6. ^ Tim Webb (3 November 2011). "Blackpool earthquakes send shudder through hopes of onshore gas boom". The Times. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
  7. ^ Emily Gosden (29 March 2012). "UK gas imports outstrip production for first time since 1967". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 31 March 2012.
  8. ^ Letters (24 April 2012). "Shale gas could fracture our renewables policy". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 April 2012. The Department of Energy and Climate Change report recommending that shale gas exploration be allowed to continue says nothing about water and air pollution, nor the consequences of shale on renewables and our efforts to tackle climate change.
  9. ^ "Institutions to review potential risks of shale gas extraction". DPA Magazine. 7 March 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
  10. ^ Williams, Diarmaid (29 June 2012). "Thumbs up for shale gas but need for regulation". Power Engineering International. PennWell Corporation. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
  11. ^ Terry Macalister; Fiona Harvey (19 July 2013). "George Osborne unveils 'most generous tax breaks in world' for fracking: Environmental groups furious as chancellor sets 30% rate for shale gas producers in bid to enhance UK energy security". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 July 2013. Shale gas is a resource with huge potential to broaden the UK's energy mix," said the Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne. "We want to create the right conditions for industry to explore and unlock that potential in a way that allows communities to share in the benefits. "This new tax regime, which I want to make the most generous for shale in the world, will contribute to that. I want Britain to be a leader of the shale gas revolution – because it has the potential to create thousands of jobs and keep energy bills low for millions of people
  12. ^ Turn Key. "Home". Cuadrilla Resources. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
    Cuadrilla is just the Spanish word for group or party, and is pronounced in English roughly as /kwəˈdriːjə/
  13. ^ a b Tim Webb (1 March 2011). "Results of controversial 'fracking' for shale gas in UK will be kept secret". guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
  14. ^ Terry Macalister (9 October 2011). "China eyes shale gas and uranium firms". guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
  15. ^ "Blackpool shale gas drilling begins". BBC News. 28 March 2011. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
  16. ^ "Eden Energy". Eden Energy. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
  17. ^ "Oil and Gas Exploration Operations in the UK". Celtique Energie. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
  18. ^ "IGas Energy Plc - a domestic gas producer and a leading independent company". Igasplc.com. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
  19. ^ Andre Lamberti (7 July 2011). "Igas Energy starts construction at Doe Green 3 site, well to spud mid-July". Proactiveinvestors. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
  20. ^ a b Charles Hendry (22 September 2011). "The potential for shale gas is worth exploration". guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
  21. ^ a b "'Fracking threat' to Bath's hot springs, says council". BBC News. 28 September 2011. Retrieved 26 February 2011.
  22. ^ a b c Andrew Gilligan (26 November 2011). "Field of dreams, or an environment nightmare?". The Sunday Telegraph. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
  23. ^ Kevin Anderson; et al. (2011), Shale gas: a provisional assessment of climate change and environmental impacts (PDF), The Tyndall Centre, University of Manchester, retrieved 26 February 2012 {{citation}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
  24. ^ Patrick Barkham (17 April 2012). "What's the truth about fracking?". guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
  25. ^ "Fracking". East Kent Mercury. 1 December 2011. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
  26. ^ Groundwater Body, Groundwater Quality Reports (PDF), Environment Agency – Southern Region, 6 May 2008, p. 5, retrieved 1 March 2012 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
  27. ^ Water for People and the Environment: Water Resources Strategy, Regional Action Plan for Southern Region (PDF), Environment Agency, 2009, p. 1, retrieved 1 March 2012 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
  28. ^ Terry Macalister (17 January 2011). "Warning over UK shale gas projects". guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
  29. ^ a b Sylvia Pfeifer and Elizabeth Rigby (1 June 2011). "Earthquake fears halt shale gas fracking". The Financial Times. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
  30. ^ "Shale gas drilling update". Mark Menzies' website. 5 June 2011. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
  31. ^ "Shale gas fracking: MPs call for safety inquiry after tremors". BBC News. 8 June 2011. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
  32. ^ Fiona Harvey (17 April 2012). "Gas 'fracking' gets green light". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
  33. ^ C.J. de Pater and S. Baisch (2 November 2011), Geomechanical Study of Bowland Shale Seismicity (PDF), Cuadrilla Resources, retrieved 22 February 2012 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
  34. ^ Rearden, Sarah (2 November 2011). "U.K. Quakes Likely Caused by Fracking". HighWire Press, American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
  35. ^ "Fracking tests near Blackpool 'likely cause' of tremors". BBC News. 2 November 2011. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
  36. ^ "Earthquake firm plans to frack 500 feet below Sussex water supplies". Gas Drilling in Balcombe. NO Fracking in Sussex. 3 January 2012. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
  37. ^ "Cuadrilla documents: Balcombe water vulnerable to fracking". Gas Drilling in Balcombe. NO Fracking in Sussex. 21 February 2012. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
  38. ^ R. Davies and others (2013) "Induced seismicity and hydraulic fracturing for the recovery of hydrocarbons", Marine and Petroleum Geology.
  39. ^ a b c John Vidal (23 September 2011). "Fracking industry will be minimally regulated in UK, letters reveal". guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
  40. ^ John Harris (31 July 2013). "Once, the Tories understood rural Britain. Not any more: The anti-fracking protest in Balcombe is just the tip of the iceberg. All over Britain, a new countryside rebellion is brewing". The Guardian. Retrieved 2 August 2013.
  41. ^ "Fracking fears over gas drilling in Vale of Glamorgan". BBC News. 26 September 2011. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
  42. ^ a b c Peter Collins (9 December 2011). "New bid to drill for gas in the Vale". South Wales Echo. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
  43. ^ "Company documents contradict Miller's 'We have no intention to frack in Balcombe'". Gas Drilling in Balcombe. NO Fracking in Sussex. 13 January 2012. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
  44. ^ a b Peter Collins (21 October 2011). "Delight at refusal of shale gas test drilling". Western Mail. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
  45. ^ Peter Collins (22 October 2011 February 2012). "Gas drill bid firm considers legal action". South Wales Echo. Retrieved 4 March 2012. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  46. ^ Peter Collins (25 November 2011). "Fracking firm considers legal action against Vale Council". South Wales Echo. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
  47. ^ a b Peter Collins (27 February 2012). "Campaign against Vale of Glamorgan gas drilling plan suffers setback". South Wales Echo. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
  48. ^ James Melley (28 September 2011). "New groups protest at shale gas". BBC News. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
  49. ^ http://stopfyldefracking.org.uk/
  50. ^ "Ribble Estuary Against Fracking - News". Reaf.org.uk. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
  51. ^ Drilling in Balcombe.wordpress.com "Gas Drilling in Balcombe". Gas Drilling in Balcombe.wordpress.com. Retrieved 4 March 2012. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  52. ^ "Help us say NO to toxic gas drilling in the Vale of Glamorgan". The Vale Says No!. 8 November 2011. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
  53. ^ Caroline Lucas (20 October 2011). "Early day motion 2292: Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking) (No. 2)". parliament.uk. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
  54. ^ a b Tim Rayment (23 October 2011). "The wonder gas that could cut your energy bills". The Sunday Times. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
  55. ^ Danny Fortson (11 December 2010). "Scramble for shale gas riches". The Sunday Times. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
  56. ^ a b c Fiona Harvey (20 April 2011). "'Gasland changed everything' – fracking firm battles to woo English villagers". guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 27 February 2012. Cite error: The named reference "Harvey 20Apr2011" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
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