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Arrowsmith School

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Arrowsmith Program
IndustryBrain training for the learning disabled
Founded1978; 46 years ago (1978)
FounderBarbara Arrowsmith Young
Area served
Canada, United States
Key people
Barbara Arrowsmith Young
Howard Eaton
Websitewww.arrowsmithschool.org

The Arrowsmith Program is a brain training method used in schooling students with learning disabilities. It is a cognitive training program based on the principle of neuroplasticity that claims to reduce or remove cognitive functioning deficits in persons with learning disabilities.

There are several schools that employ the Arrowsmith Program, including the Arrowsmith School in Toronto that focuses on children with learning disabilities (also referred to as specific learning difficulties).[1] Founded in 1980, the original Arrowsmith School is in Toronto, Ontario and a second location was opened in May 2005 in Peterborough, Ontario. Another branch, the Eaton Arrowsmith School, was opened also in 2005 in Victoria, British Columbia.

In 2014, the Eaton Arrowsmith Academy, a K-12 private special education school that also accepts adults with learning disabilities, opened in Redmond, Washington in the United States.[2][3][4]

The Arrowsmith Program has been incorporated in other public and private schools in Canada, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand.[5]

History

Founded by Barbara Arrowsmith Young in 1978,[6] the Arrowsmith Program claims to help learning disabled students "transform their brains" by doing brain training exercises based on the principle of neuroplasticity which suggests that the brain is dynamic and constantly rewiring itself. It is also founded on Ms. Arrowsmith Young’s personal experience of living with learning disabilities. In her late 20s, she had logical and verbal impairments that were so severe she couldn't tell time by reading a clock – a struggle detailed in her May 2012 book The Woman Who Changed Her Brain.[7]

To help herself, Ms. Arrowsmith Young developed cognitive exercises that she claims help in stimulating the growth of neural pathways. She now has her students – who are not only children, but include adults into their 80s – follow a similar approach.[8]

Barbara Arrowsmith Young holds both a B.A.Sc. in Child Studies from the University of Guelph, and a Master’s degree in School Psychology from the University of Toronto O.I.S.E. (Ontario Institute for Studies in Education).[when?][citation needed] In graduate school, she came across two lines of research that intrigued her. Alexander Luria’s description of specific brain function lead her to a clearer understanding of her own learning problems and the work of Mark Rosenzweig suggested the possibility of improving brain function through specific stimulation, at least in animals. This lead to the creation of her first cognitive exercise designed to improve the learning capacity involved in logical reasoning. The results were positive according to Arrowsmith with gains in verbal reasoning, mathematical reasoning and conceptual understanding. This lead to a further exploration of the nature of specific learning capacities and to creating exercises to strengthen them.[citation needed]

Arrowsmith Program refers to the Arrowsmith school's methodology that is made available to students in public and private schools in Canada, the United States, Australia and New Zealand.[9]

The Arrowsmith Program is founded on two ideas. First, the idea that different areas of the brain working together are responsible for complex mental activities, such as reading or writing, and that a weakness in one area can affect a number of different learning processes. Secondly, it is based on the principle of neuroplasticity, which is the ability of the brain to physically change in response to stimulus and activity, to develop new neuronal/synaptic interconnections and thereby develop and adapt new functions and roles believed to be the physical mechanism of learning. Neuroplasticity refers to structural and functional changes in the brain that are brought about by training and experience.

Arrowsmith Program-initiated case studies

Arrowsmith Program's own case study

The Learning Disabilities Association of Saskatchewan (LDAS) is an organization that offers the Arrowsmith Program to learning disabled people.[10] In 2013, case study research was conducted to investigate how participation in the LDAS Arrowsmith Program affected the cognitive, academic, emotional, and interpersonal functioning of five students who attended this program for two to three years.[citation needed] Semi-structured interviews were conducted with five students and one or both of their parents. Standardized test results and information from the school cumulative folders of the students were also reviewed. Four of the five students experienced large and significant increases in cognitive, academic, emotional, and/or interpersonal functioning following their participation in the LDAS Arrowsmith program. One of the five students had much smaller gains in cognitive and academic functioning and experienced difficulties with emotional and interpersonal functioning.[11]

Case studies by the BrainGain Lab

Two studies have recently been completed:

  • A Brain-Based Intervention Program That Changes Cognition: Implications for Academic Achievement, a study presented at a poster session at the American Psychological Convention, Washington, D.C. August 2014 by a research team at the BrainGain Lab at the University of Calgary.[12]

The findings of this study show that following Arrowsmith Program intervention improvements were found on the following cognitive domains: Auditory Processing; Fluid Reasoning; Processing Speed; Short-Term Memory; Phonemic Awareness; and Working Memory.[citation needed]

  • The second study is The Effects of the Arrowsmith Program on Academic Performance: A Pilot Study, which was presented at a poster session at the Canadian Psychological Convention, Vancouver June 2014 by a research team at the BrainGain Lab at the University of Calgary.

The findings of this non-peer reviewed study show that following Arrowsmith Program intervention all academic scores improved and were in the average range except math fluency. The study concluded that strengthening cognitive neuropsychological functions presumed to underlie academic achievement deficits improves reading, mathematics, and writing by targeting the cause (i.e., cognitive deficit) rather than the symptoms (i.e., achievement deficits).[13]

Future University of British Columbia study

In November 2014, it was reported that Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella's daughter is a student at a school that uses the Arrowsmith Program and that Nadella is funding a $100,000 study conducted by the University of British Columbia that will look into the effectiveness of the Arrowsmith Program.[14]

At the University of British Columbia, Dr. Lara Boyd, the Canada Research Chair in Neurobiology of Motor Learning, and Director of the Brain Behaviour Laboratory, began[when?] conducting brain imaging on twenty students with specific learning difficulties undergoing the Arrowsmith Program. The main aim of this study is to gain insight into how the Arrowsmith Program alters the structure and function of the brain of children with specific learning difficulties. This is the first time that advanced brain imaging has been used to assess the impact of the Arrowsmith Program. The data collected will provide preliminary evidence of the impact of training on neuroplastic processes and will inform a larger, longitudinal study.[15]

Skepticism and criticism

Doubt and criticism has emerged, including from psychologists, neurologists and learning experts, on the credibility of the Arrowsmith program due to the lack of evidence of change in learning skills as well as the high costs.

Professor Anne Castles is deputy director of the ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders at Macquarie University, Australia.[16] Castles has stated in an article in the Learning Difficulties Australia Bulletin, an organization she is a council member of, that there is "a clear lack of independent research to support the program's claims", and no study has been published in a peer-reviewed journal on the Arrowsmith program.[17]

In a separate commentary co-written with Genevieve McArthur, Associate Professor at the Department of Cognitive Science at Macquarie University, Castles gives her analysis of why she is not in favor of the Arrowsmith program.[18]

Lack of neuroscientific basis

Neuroscientists in Australia have criticized the Arrowsmith program where trials were being conducted to incorporate the program into local Catholic schools. They contend the Arrowsmith school's claims of being research based are unfounded. It was further reported that Dr Emma Burrows, a neuroscientist from the Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, directly confronted Barbara Arrowsmith on whether neuroscientists were involved in testing her program and its methods and the answer she got was that they were not involved.[19]

Emeritus Professor Max Coltheart from the department of Cognitive Science at Macquarie University explains that there is no neuoroscientific evidence to support the program's credibility.[20] Professor Coltheart advises against such programs and stresses the need for scientific evidence to support their beneficial claims.[21]

Dr Linda Siegel, a professor at the University of British Columbia in Educational and Counseling Psychology as well as special education, has repeatedly criticized studies supportive of the Arrowsmith School. Siegel asserts that none of these studies, including the two published on the Arrowsmith school's website, provide any scientific evidence in favor of their program, nor do all the testimonials live up to its claims.[22]

Arrowsmith Program Evaluation Report

In 2003 the Vancouver School Board (VSB) received an 8 month Arrowsmith Program Evaluation Report from Linda Siegel.[23] Two programs for elementary students with learning disabilities were to be compared over a three year period.

The Arrowsmith Program and an Extended Learning Assistance Class (ELAC) which focused on reading and writing were to be compared on measures of students’ cognitive ability and academic achievement. The Arrowsmith Program was to be piloted for three years (the average length of time it takes to complete the program) and the VSB received funding through the Vancouver Foundation. After the first eight months of the pilot, tests of cognitive ability and academic achievement were given to all students involved in the study and an evaluation was written by Siegel (only achievement measures were reported). Siegel stated in her conclusion of her 8 month evaluation that, “On all but the comprehension and spelling measures, ELAC performed at higher levels than Arrowsmith, often by a relatively large amount.”

The Arrowsmith Program was discontinued at the VSB.[citation needed]

It was claimed that Siegel’s eight month evaluation was noted as being influential in this decision.[by whom?] Howard Eaton claims that Siegel’s study has been cited by Siegel herself, media and professionals involved in education as evidence against the effectiveness of the Arrowsmith Program.[24]

Canadian Broadcasting Center documentary

In 2008 a CBC documentary about the Arrowsmith program entitled Fixing My Brain included interviews from various people including Dr Linda Siegel, whose criticisms were later edited out of the documentary after Arrowsmith's lawyers issued a libel notice to the CBC. This nearly led to a legal stand off between Arrowsmith and Seigel.[25][26]

Brain training's lack of effectiveness

According to the Department of Special Needs Education at the University of Oslo in Norway, research and studies reveal that 'brain training' programs do not show any serious effectiveness in memory and other cognitive difficulties.[27]

Schools

Schools that use the Arrowsmith Program include:

  • Arrowsmith School, Toronto, Canada, opened in 1980 by Barbara Arrowsmith Young.
  • Arrowsmith School, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada, opened in 2005.
  • Eaton Arrowsmith School, Victoria, British Columbia, opened in 2005. Howard Eaton is the director.[28]
  • Eaton Arrowsmith Academy, Redmond, Washington, opened in 2014. Also accepts adults as students.[29][30][31]
  • Eaton Cognitive Improvement Centre, Redmond, Washington, opened in 2014.[32]

Schools owned and operated by Howard Eaton's Eaton Educational Group Ltd, such as the Eaton Arrowsmith School in Vancouver and Victoria, British Columbia, the Eaton Arrowsmith School White Rock in White Rock and the Magnussen School in Vancouver, use the Arrowsmith Program.

The Arrowsmith Program can be used by children and adults with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, dyscalculia and dysgraphia who have at least average intelligence.[33] The program is not suitable for people who have an autism spectrum disorder.[34]

More than 50 schools in Canada, the United States, Australia and New Zealand use the Arrowsmith Program.[35]

The Brehm Preparatory School in Carbondale, Illinois, the Jewish Educational Center in Elizabeth, New Jersey, the Alliance Charter Academy in Oregon City, Oregon, Westminster Schools of Augusta in Augusta, Georgia, and the Dallas Christian School in Mesquite, Texas use the Arrowsmith Program.[36][37][38][39][40]

See also

References

  1. ^ "What are Specific Learning Difficulties - About Dyslexia - The British Dyslexia Association".
  2. ^ Molly Shen (November 25, 2014). "New take on learning disabilities: change the brain". KOMO-TV. Retrieved November 27, 2014.
  3. ^ "Arrowsmith Program". ArrowsmithSchool.org. Retrieved November 27, 2014. Eaton Arrowsmith Academy and Eaton Cognitive Improvement Centre, Redmond offers the Arrowsmith Program to adults as well.
  4. ^ "Eaton Arrowsmith Academy, Redmond, Washington". EatonArrowsmithAcademy.com. Retrieved November 27, 2014. This program is designed for K-12 students and offers 6 cognitive exercises with one period of Math and one period of English. Mindfulness training and brain fitness classes will be included on a daily basis.
  5. ^ "Schools That Offer the Arrowsmith Program". Arrowsmith School. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-01. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ Samantha Pak (July 25, 2014). "Arrowsmith program focuses on strengthening students' cognitive abilities". Redmond Reporter. Retrieved November 27, 2014.
  7. ^ "The Woman Who Changed Her Brain".
  8. ^ "Can a controversial learning program transform brains?". The Globe and Mail.
  9. ^ "Arrowsmith Program".
  10. ^ http://www.arrowsmithschool.org/arrowsmithprogram/learn-sask.htm
  11. ^ "A CASE STUDY OF THE LEARNING DISABILITIES ASSOCIATION OF SASKATCHEWAN (LDAS) ARROWSMITH PROGRAM" (PDF). {{cite web}}: line feed character in |title= at position 71 (help)
  12. ^ "A Brain-Based Intervention Program that Changes Cognition: Implications for Academic Achievement" (PDF).
  13. ^ "Effects of the Arrowsmith Program on Academic Performance: A Pilot Study" (PDF). {{cite web}}: line feed character in |title= at position 38 (help)
  14. ^ Molly Shen (November 25, 2014). "New take on learning disabilities: change the brain". KOMO-TV. Retrieved November 27, 2014. The Nadella's are such strong believers, they invested $100,000 in a research project at the University of British Columbia, studying the effects of the program.
  15. ^ "Learning Disabilities: Can brain scans show improvements?".
  16. ^ Learning Difficulties Australia. "LDA Council 2013-2014 - LDA - Learning Difficulties Australia".
  17. ^ "Experts question Arrowsmith learning program". The Age.
  18. ^ Anne Castles (5 October 2012). "'Brain-Training' … or learning, as we like to call it". The Conversation.
  19. ^ Esther Han. "Proof hurdle for 'brain training'". The Sydney Morning Herald.
  20. ^ Max Coltheart (10 December 2012). "Weird neuroscience: how education hijacked brain research". The Conversation.
  21. ^ "Brain program heads this way". The Sydney Morning Herald.
  22. ^ "Financial Review - News Store".
  23. ^ "Linda Siegel - Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education".
  24. ^ http://www.eatonarrowsmithschool.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Eaton-Review-of-Siegel-2003-Arrowsmith-Program-Evaluation.pdf
  25. ^ "Legal clash over Arrowsmith documentary - Vancouver Sun". Vancouver Sun.
  26. ^ "Education expert calling her lawyer". canada.com.
  27. ^ pubmeddev. "Is working memory training effective? A meta-ana... [Dev Psychol. 2013] - PubMed - NCBI".
  28. ^ http://www.eatonarrowsmithschool.com/directors-message/
  29. ^ Molly Shen (November 25, 2014). "New take on learning disabilities: change the brain". KOMO-TV. Retrieved November 27, 2014.
  30. ^ "Arrowsmith Program". ArrowsmithSchool.org. Retrieved November 27, 2014. Eaton Arrowsmith Academy and Eaton Cognitive Improvement Centre, Redmond offers the Arrowsmith Program to adults as well.
  31. ^ "Eaton Arrowsmith Academy, Redmond, Washington". EatonArrowsmithAcademy.com. Retrieved November 27, 2014. This program is designed for K-12 students and offers 6 cognitive exercises with one period of Math and one period of English. Mindfulness training and brain fitness classes will be included on a daily basis.
  32. ^ Samantha Pak (July 25, 2014). "Arrowsmith program focuses on strengthening students' cognitive abilities". Redmond Reporter. Retrieved November 27, 2014.
  33. ^ http://www.arrowsmithschool.org/arrowsmithprogram-background/suitable-students.html
  34. ^ Arrowsmith Program. "Suitable Students". ArrowsmithSchool.org. Retrieved November 27, 2014. ...does not have acquired brain injury or an autism spectrum disorder
  35. ^ http://www.arrowsmithschool.org/arrowsmithprogram/participating-schools.html
  36. ^ http://www.brehm.org/arrowsmith-program-at-brehm/
  37. ^ http://www.arrowsmithschool.org/arrowsmithprogram/dallas.html
  38. ^ http://www.arrowsmithschool.org/arrowsmithprogram/jewish.htm
  39. ^ http://www.arrowsmithschool.org/arrowsmithprogram/alliance.htm
  40. ^ http://www.arrowsmithschool.org/arrowsmithprogram/westminster.htm
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