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Irataba
Irataba as depicted in 1864
Mohave leader
Preceded byCairook
Personal details
Bornc. 1814
Arizona
DiedMay 1874
Colorado River Indian Reservation
Cause of deathUncertain
Known forIrataba was the last independent head chief of the Mohave.

Irataba (also known as Yara tav, from eecheeyara tav; c. 1814 – May 1874), was the last independent head chief of the Mohave Nation of Native Americans. He was born near the Colorado River in present-day Arizona.

Irataba and the Mohave head chief, Cairook, encountered a large group of European Americans in 1849. Led by Captain Amiel Whipple, they were conducting an exploratory expedition up the Colorado River. Several Mohave assisted the expedition as it crossed, and Cairook and Irataba agreed to escort the group though the territory of the Paiute to the Old Spanish Trail that would take them to southern California.

In 1858, the Mohave attacked the Rose-Baley Party, the first European American emigrant wagon train to traverse Beale's Wagon Road though Mohave country. This elicited a stern response from the US War Department, which in 1859 established Fort Mohave near the site of the battle. They also imprisoned several Mohave leaders, including Chief Cairook. In June, following Cairook's death in captivity, Irataba was made principal chief of the Mohave Nation.

Irataba traveled to Washington, D.C. in 1864, for an official visit with members of the United States military and its government, including President Abraham Lincoln. During his stay he toured the US capital, New York City, and Philadelphia, and enjoyed great acclaim along the way; Americans gave him medals, swords, and photographs, and Lincoln presented him with a silver-headed cane. When Irataba returned home and reported what he had seen, the Mohave did not believe him, and they subsequently mocked him mercilessly. Although he died ten years later in relative disgrace, the Mohave never replaced Irataba as head chief; he was their last, and was given full traditional respect upon his death in 1874.

Early life

Photograph of a Mojave Indian woman sitting on the ground in front of a ramada, or open thatch-covered shelter, c.1900. She wears a print plaid skirt and striped shirt. She sits crosslegged with her hands in her lap. A large cloth or blanket attached at left to the ramada provides shade.
Mohave woman by a ramada, or open thatch-covered shelter, c. 1900

Irataba or Yara tav, from the Mohave eecheeyara tav (meaning "beautiful bird") also rendered as Irateba, Arateve, and Yiratewa, was born into the Neolge, or Sun Fire clan of the Mohave Nation of Native Americans c. 1814.[1] He lived in present-day Arizona, near the Nevada and California border, on the east bank of the Colorado River in the Mohave Valley near a group of sharply pointed rocks known as the Needles, located south of where the Grand Canyon empties into the Mohave Canyon.[2]

Mohave caught fish in the Colorado River and hunted game, such as rabbits and beaver, using a bow and arrow or traps.[3] In the spring, when the Colorado River flooded the bottomlands, they cultivated corn, watermelons, beans, gourds, tobacco, and pumpkins.[4] The Mohave lived in groups of houses along the riverbank, but eschewed centralized villages. During the winter, they lived in half-buried dwellings built with cottonwood logs and arrowweed covered in earth. In the summer they lived in open-air flat-roofed houses known as ramadas, which provided sufficient shade.[5] Mohave who enjoyed higher status would cover their body in goose fat to help alleviate the summer heat.[6]

Adulthood

[Irataba] is a big Indian, literally as well as figuratively ... granitic in appearance as one of the Lower Coast mountains, with a head only less in size to a buffalo's and a lower jar massive enough to crush nuts or crush quartz.

 —Daily Evening Bulletin, December 2, 1863

According to the cultural anthropologist Alfred L. Kroeber, Mohave men were extraordinarily tall; Chief Cairook reached a barefoot height of nearly six and a half feet.[7] By adulthood, Irataba had grown almost as tall as Cairook, becoming one of the tribe's sub-chiefs.[8]

In the opinion of the anthropologist Kenneth M. Stewart, the Mohave were fierce warriors who were frequently the aggressor, and although they did not plunder their enemy's possessions, they took prisoners and scalps. Mohave war parties, which regularly battled against the Chemehuevi, Paiute, and Maricopa peoples, utilized bowmen tasked with inflicting damage on an approaching group and keeping them distracted in preparation for melee attacks by warriors brandishing war clubs capable of crushing their opponent's skulls.[9] According to the anthropologist Lorraine M. Sherer, Irataba was what the Mohave called, kwanami, which means brave or fearless.[10]

Contact with European Americans

A black and white photograph of two Mohave men next to the Colorado River, 1871
Two Mohave men next to the Colorado River, 1871

According to the historical archeologist Arthur Woodward, in 1849, Irataba, Cairook, and the Mohave people encountered a large group of European Americans, including Captain Amiel Whipple and Lieutenant J.C. Ives, who were leading an exploratory expedition up the Colorado River.[11] Whipple and his men counted six hundred Mohave gathered near their camp, eagerly trading corn, beans, squash, and wheat for beads and calico. By the end of their commerce, the party had purchased six bushels of corn and two hundred pounds of flour. The Mohave taught the European Americans a traditional game played with a hoop and pole, and the two groups entertained themselves with target practice, the Mohave using bows and arrows and the whites shooting pistols and rifles.[12]

Whipple notes that, when the expedition experienced difficulties crossing the Colorado River on February 27, several Mohave jumped into the water and helped salvage the supplies. The Native Americans also saved many sheep that had fallen into the river using rafts that they had constructed.[12] Whipple then asked the Mohave to guide them across the desert, and Cairook and Irataba agreed. They escorted the group across the hostile territory of the Paiute to the Old Spanish Trail that would take them to southern California.[13] Irataba assisted Captain Lorenzo Sitgreaves during his 1851 exploration of the Colorado River.[14]

In October 1857, an expedition led by Edward Fitzgerald Beale was tasked with establishing a trade route along the 35th parallel from Fort Smith, Arkansas to Los Angeles, California.[15] From Fort Smith, his journey continued through Fort Defiance, Arizona before crossing the Colorado River near Needles, California.[14] This route became known as Beale's Wagon Road and the location where Beale crossed the river, Beale's Crossing.[16] Beale's journal and subsequent report to the United States Secretary of War did not mention any problems with the Mohave; however, an assistant named Humphrey Stacy recorded that the Mohave had prevented Beale from traveling downriver.[17]

According to Woodward, in February 1858, Irataba and Cairook noticed a paddle steamer heading up the Mohave Canyon.[11] When the boat stopped and its crew revealed themselves, Irataba quickly realized that their leader was his old friend, Lieutenant Ives.[18] Ives was leading an expedition to the Grand Canyon in a steamship named the Explorer, and he asked Irataba to guide them into the canyon. Cairook agreed to the arrangement, and he and a Mohave boy named Nahvahroopa joined them.[19][nb 1]

Exploring the Grand Canyon

According to Ives's 1861 report, Irataba guided the party into the Mohave Canyon, indicating the location of sandbars and rapids and advising the Explorer's pilot regarding convenient places to anchor while camping for a night. As the expedition progressed, the rapids grew in strength and intensity, and the rock walls increasingly towered above them.[21] When they reached the entrance to the Black Canyon of the Colorado, the ship crashed against a submerged rock, throwing several men overboard, dislodging the boiler, and severely damaging the wheelhouse.[22]

Ives explained how, using their skiff, they towed the Explorer to shore, where they camped for three days while making repairs to the badly damaged vessel.[23] The expedition had relied on beans and corn provided by the Mohave during the previous weeks; as their supplies dwindled they grew increasingly anxious about the arrival of the pack train from Fort Yuma. Irataba volunteered to hike towards the Mohave Valley in an attempt to locate the supplies that had been requested several days earlier. He also warned that the expedition was being watched by Paiutes.[24] When he returned he informed Ives that he would not venture any deeper into the territory of the Hualapais, but agreed to help them locate friendly guides in the region before parting company.[25] According to the historian Natale A. Zappia, Irataba was reluctant to venture into the canyon because he feared the party would get ambushed by Paiutes aligned with Mormons.[26][nb 2] Ives noted that, after enlisting three Hualapais guides, Irataba took his leave from the expedition and returned to the Mohave Villages.[28]

Rose-Baley Party

Further information: Rose-Baley Party
A black and white photo of three European American homesteaders and their wagon
European American homesteaders, c. late 1800s

According to Charles W. Baley, author of Disaster at the Colorado: Beale's Wagon Road and the First Emigrant Party, in 1858 a wealthy businessman from Iowa, Leonard John Rose, formed a large emigrant wagon train that included two dozen horses and two hundred head of red Durham cattle. The Rose party left Iowa in early April and were joined by the Baley family while traveling through Kansas in May.[29][nb 3] They reached Albuquerque, New Mexico on June 23, where several more families and their livestock joined them before traveling to the Colorado River by way of Zuni Pueblo, New Mexico, where they would become the first emigrant train to venture onto Beale's Wagon Road.[31]

Baley notes that on August 27, the emigrants reached the Black Mountains and made their crossing at Sitgreaves Pass, elevation 3,652 feet.[32][nb 4] From the crest they could see the Colorado River in the distance, but having worked continuously during the morning and afternoon, they stopped to prepare their first meal of the day. While they were cooking, a small group of Mohave approached and asked, in a combination of broken English and Spanish, how many people the wagon train included and whether they intended to settle near the Colorado River. They told the Mohave that they were traveling through the region on their way to California, which seemed to appease them, as many of them helped the party during their descent to the Colorado.[33]

According to Baley, while others stopped to make a mountain camp, the Rose company continued to the Colorado, where they planned to water the train's combined stock and build a raft in preparation for the impending river crossing. There the emigrants encountered more Mohave, but unlike the friendly ones that greeted them at Sitgreaves Pass, these were decidedly unwelcoming.[34] Several people were physically harassed, and many of the party's cattle were driven away and slaughtered. The group settled in for the night at a spot two hundred yards from the river and 10 miles (16 km) from the Baley company's mountain camp.[35] The following morning they moved closer to the river bank, where they could more easily water their stock. They were visited soon afterward by many Mohave warriors asking about their intentions in the region, including a sub-chief who heard their complaints and assured them that there would be no more attacks.[36] Around noon, they moved closer to where they planned to cross, near a patch of cottonwood trees that were suitable for building rafts.[36]

Around 2 p.m. on August 30, the emigrants working near the river were attacked by approximately three hundred Mohave warriors, who according to Baley let out war whoops as they sent arrows flying into the camp.[37] Woodward described how the men quickly armed themselves as women fled with their children to the covered wagons.[38] The attack continued for several hours, but Rose and others held off the assailants, who eventually retreated.[39] In all, eight members of the Rose-Baley Party had been killed, including five children, and thirteen wounded; of the train's livestock, only seventeen cattle and ten mules and horses remained.[40] The emigrants killed seventeen Mohave warriors.[41] With the wounded in one wagon, the children in another, and the healthy adults on foot, the party began the difficult journey back to Albuquerque, 500 miles (800 km) away.[42][nb 5] According to Kroeber, "the event sealed the fate of the Mohave as an independent people."[44]

Fort Mohave

Further information: Fort Mohave
A black and whiter sketch of Fort Mohave in the late 1800s
A sketch of Fort Mohave in the late 1800s

According to Woodward, when news of the massacre reached the west, the US War Department established a military fort at Beale's Crossing to protect white travelers, and on December 26, 1858, Colonel William Hoffman and fifty dragoons were dispatched from Fort Tejon to cross the desert and confront the Mohave.[43] Kroeber notes that Irataba had attempted to arrange a peaceful meeting, but Hoffman ordered his troops to fire on the warriors, who attacked and repelled the force.[45] Hoffman returned in April 1859, by way of Fort Yuma, with four companies of the 6th Infantry Regiment.[43] When they arrived at Beale's Crossing, the Mohave decided against attacking the army of five hundred soldiers.[43] Hoffman immediately arranged for a meeting between him and his officers and Cairook and his sub-chiefs, with Pascual, chief of the Yumas, translating from English to Spanish to Yuman and Mohave and vice versa.[46]

According to Woodward, Hoffman demanded that the Mohave agree to never again harm white settlers along the wagon trail, and he ordered that a fort be built at Beale's Crossing to enforce the decree. When he asked which chief was responsible for the Rose-Baley Party massacre, Cairook admitted that he had ordered the attack. Hoffman declared that, as punishment, the Mohave were required to surrender six prominent leaders and three warriors who had taken part in the massacre. Cairook offered himself as a hostage, and he and the others were transported in the river steamer, General Jessup, to Fort Yuma.[46] In the opinion of Fulsom Charles Scrivner, the author of Mohave People (1970), whereas Cairook helped lead the attack on the Rose-Baley Party, "it appears that Irataba stayed clear of the fracas", arguing "if Irataba had taken an active part he would have offered himself as prisoner", as did Cairook.[47] Many soldiers remained to begin construction on Fort Mohave.[48] After its completion, Irataba and five to eight hundred of his most ardent supporters moved to the Colorado River Valley, where in 1865 the Colorado River Indian Reservation was established.[49] In Sherer's opinion, this marked the beginning of a rift between two rival factions of Mohave, the other led by a respected sub-chief named Homoseh quahote, known by the whites as Seck-a-hoot.[50]

Death of Cairook

Woodward reports that on June 21 1859, Cairook and several others were killed by soldiers while attempting to escape their incarceration at Fort Yuma, which had exposed them to the desert's harsh elements.[51] After Cairook's death, Irataba became the Mohave's head chief.[52] According to Sherer, he was known as an Aha macave yaltanack or hochoch, which designated him as the leader made, or elected, by the people.[53]

In Woodward's opinion, European Americans living near the Colorado River viewed Irataba as the most important Native leader in the region.[54] With a large army of Mohave warriors in his command, he quickly earned a reputation for just leadership.[55] In 1862, he acted as a guide for the Walker Party Exploration, gold prospectors led by Joseph R. Walker and including Jack Swilling, who would later found Phoenix, Arizona. Irataba brought them to a river that he called Hasyamp, later officially named Hassayampa River, where they found plentiful amounts of the precious metal. Arizona's first mining district was established there the following year, which led to the founding of Prescott, Arizona soon afterward.[56] Relations between the Mohave and European Americans were positive during this period; however, as white emigration increased, gold seekers founded a town nearby named La Paz, stirring tensions among the Mohave and building fear of an uprising against further encroachment on their land.[57] John Moss, an experienced prospector, suggested they bring Irataba to Washington so that he could see firsthand the United States' military might.[58][nb 6]

Trip to Washington D.C.

A black and white photograph of Washington, D.C., in April 1865, with the Capital building in the background
Washington, D.C., April 1865

In November 1863, Irataba traveled with Moss to San Pedro, Los Angeles, where they boarded a steamship named the Senator, bound for San Francisco. The Mohave Chief had been dressed in what Woodward described as, "the full civilized costume" typical of European Americans, which Irataba soon preferred to traditional Mohave clothing.[59]

In January 1864, they sailed for New York City, by way of the Isthmus of Panama, on the Orizaba.[60] Here Irataba traded his suit and sombrero for the uniform and regalia of a major general, including a bright yellow sash and gold badge encrusted with precious stones. From it hung a medal that bore the inscription, "Irataba, Chief of the Mohaves, Arizona Territory".[61] In February, when The New York Times asked him to explain the nature of his visit, he replied: "to see where so many pale faces come from".[55] That same month, Harper's Weekly described him as "the finest specimen of unadulterated aboriginal on this continent".[62] When journalist John Penn Curry asked him what he thought of Americans, he replied: "Mericanos too much talk, too much eat, too much drink; no work, no raise pumpkins, corn, watermelons – all time walk, talk, drink – no good."[63] Irataba toured New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C., and earned great acclaim at each stop; government officials and military officers lavished him with gifts of medals, swords, and photographs.[64] While in Washington, he met with President Abraham Lincoln, who gave him a silver-headed cane "as a symbol of his chieftainship".[65] He was the first Native American from the Southwestern United States to meet a US president.[66] The tour ended in April, when he and Moss sailed to California, again by way of the Isthmus of Panama, and made their way back to Beale's Crossing, from Los Angeles, in a wagon.[61]

Disgrace and death

Photograph of the funeral pyre of dead Mojave Indian chief, Sistuma, c. 1902. The landscape is flat far into the distance. A small hill is visible in the distant background at left. Smoke is beginning to rise from the stack of logs. A group of more than 30 people stand behind the fire.
A Mohave funeral pyre, c. 1902

According to Woodward, having recently returned from Washington Irataba met with the Mohave dressed in his major general's uniform, which was covered in medals. He wore a European-style hat and carried a long Japanese sword, and he told the Mohave about all the things he had seen.[67] He tried to convince them that peace with European Americans was in their best interests, and that war against them was futile, stressing their dominant military capabilities.[68] Nevertheless, Woodward notes that the Mohave accused him of telling "tall tales", and Irataba was largely discredited.[69]

The old man is here now with his tribe, but he looks feeble, wan, and grief stricken. Age has come to Irataba, but it has brought to him no bright and peaceful twilight. Dark and cheerless appear the skies of his declining years.[70]

 —The Arizona Weekly Miner, February 5, 1870

Irataba continued to lead the Mohave in their ongoing conflicts with neighboring tribes. In March 1865, he and the Mohave defeated the Chemehuevi after their allies, the Paiutes, killed two Mohave women.[71] To avoid "a fire in the rear", Irataba attacked the Chemehuevi first, then turned his attention to the Paiutes, who were planning an attack on the Mohave farm and granary on Cottonwood Island.[72] During a subsequent battle with the Paiutes, Irataba was taken prisoner while wearing his major general's uniform. They feared that killing him would invite repercussions from the soldiers stationed at Fort Mohave, so they instead stripped him naked and sent him home badly beaten.[72][nb 7] According to Woodward, this defeat further eroded Irataba's influence over the Mohave people.[69]

Sherer notes that by the late 1860s a strong rift had developed between Irataba, who was sympathetic to white settlement, and the militant Mohave sub-chief, Homoseh Quahote, also known as Seck-a-hoot, who vehemently opposed white encroachment on Mohave lands.[73] At one time, Seck-a-hoot briefly imprisoned Irataba in an effort to supplant him as head chief.[68] His influence waning, Irataba retired in near isolation to a small adobe style house where he lived out his final days.[74] As time went on the people softened in their disdain for him. The Mohave never replaced Irataba; he was their last independent head chief, and when he died at the Colorado River Indian Reservation in May 1874, they burned his body, hut, and belongings according to tradition.[75][nb 8]

Notes

  1. ^ After two days, Cairook departed and returned home.[20]
  2. ^ Tensions between Mormons and European American emigrants reached their zenith during 1857–58, with several hostile encounters collectively known as the Mormon War.[27]
  3. ^ The combined Rose-Baley Party traveled with twenty wagons and numbered forty men, fifty to sixty women and children, and five hundred head of cattle.[30]
  4. ^ The pass was named after Lieutenant Lorenzo Sitgreaves, who led an expedition party to the region in 1851.[32]
  5. ^ While traveling back to Albuquerque the Rose-Baley Party observed a fiery comet that further upset the already frightened children.[43]
  6. ^ Prior to his trip to Washington in 1863, Irataba had visited Los Angeles, first in 1860, and again in 1861.[52]
  7. ^ The Paiutes gave Irataba's major general's uniform to Irataba's Mohave rival, Seck-a-hoot.[72]
  8. ^ Irataba's cause of death is unknown, but old age and smallpox are both cited as possible causes.[68] The Mohave were so committed to Irataba's cremation ritual they burned their entire village.[76]

References

  1. ^ Ricky 1999, p. 100: born c. 1814 to the Sun Fire clan; Sherer 1966, p. 6: Irataba's Mohave name was Yara tav, a shortened form of the Mohave eecheeyara tav, but it has also been rendered as Irateba, Arateve, and Yiratewa.
  2. ^ Kroeber 1925, pp. 725–7.
  3. ^ Johansen & Pritzker 2007, p. 1019.
  4. ^ Wilson 2000, p. 218.
  5. ^ Moratto 2014, p. 347.
  6. ^ NYT & May 1864, p. 1.
  7. ^ Kroeber 1925, p. 728: Mohave men were extraordinarily tall; United States Army 1861, p. 69: Chief Cairook was nearly six and a half feet tall.
  8. ^ Harte 1886, p. 492: Irataba's height was approximately 6'4"; United States Army 1861, p. 69: Irataba was one of Cairook's sub-chiefs.
  9. ^ Stewart 1971, pp. 431–444.
  10. ^ Sherer 1966, p. 30.
  11. ^ a b Woodward 1953, p. 54.
  12. ^ a b Whipple 1856, pp. 112–9.
  13. ^ Whipple 1856, pp. 119–28.
  14. ^ a b Ricky 1999, p. 100.
  15. ^ Thrapp 1991, p. 76.
  16. ^ Utley 1981, p. 164.
  17. ^ Sherer 1994, p. 69.
  18. ^ United States Army 1861, p. 69.
  19. ^ Woodward 1953, pp. 54–5.
  20. ^ Woodward 1953, p. 55.
  21. ^ United States Army 1861, pp. 95–120.
  22. ^ United States Army 1861, pp. 81–2.
  23. ^ United States Army 1861, pp. 81–4.
  24. ^ United States Army 1861, pp. 79–83.
  25. ^ United States Army 1861, pp. 94–7.
  26. ^ Zappia 2014, pp. 121, 138.
  27. ^ Baley 2002, p. 4, 14, 28, 131–2.
  28. ^ United States Army 1861, pp. 94–7, 102.
  29. ^ Baley 2002, pp. 2–3, 5, 15.
  30. ^ Baley 2002, p. 15.
  31. ^ Baley 2002, pp. 24, 28–37, 39–40.
  32. ^ a b Baley 2002, p. 56.
  33. ^ Baley 2002, p. 59.
  34. ^ Baley 2002, p. 61.
  35. ^ Baley 2002, pp. 61–2.
  36. ^ a b Baley 2002, pp. 63–4.
  37. ^ Baley 2002, pp. 67–9.
  38. ^ Woodward 1953, p. 69.
  39. ^ Baley 2002, pp. 70–2.
  40. ^ Baley 2002, pp. 68, 71.
  41. ^ Zappia 2014, p. 129.
  42. ^ Baley 2002, p. 72.
  43. ^ a b c d Woodward 1953, p. 58.
  44. ^ Kroeber & Kroeber 1973, p. 53.
  45. ^ Kroeber & Kroeber 1973, p. 63: Irataba attempted to arrange a peaceful meeting; Woodward 1953, p. 58: the Mohave attacked and repelled the force.
  46. ^ a b Woodward 1953, p. 59.
  47. ^ Scrivner 1970, p. 133.
  48. ^ Kroeber & Kroeber 1973, p. 24.
  49. ^ Griffin-Pierce 2000, p. 246: Irataba moved to the Colorado River Valley, where in 1865 the Colorado River Indian Reservation was established; Sherer 1966, p. 8: Irataba relocated with five to eight hundred of his most ardent supporters.
  50. ^ Sherer 1966, pp. 8–9.
  51. ^ Woodward 1953, pp. 59–60.
  52. ^ a b Scrivner 1970, p. 134.
  53. ^ Sherer 1966, pp. 5–6.
  54. ^ Woodward 1953, p. 60.
  55. ^ a b NYT & February 1864.
  56. ^ Hanchett 1998, p. 9.
  57. ^ Woodward 1953, pp. 60–1.
  58. ^ Scrivner 1970, p. 135.
  59. ^ Woodward 1953, pp. 61–2.
  60. ^ O'Brien 2006, p. 249: sailed by way of the Isthmus of Panama; Woodward 1953, p. 62: Moss and Irataba sailed on the Orizaba.
  61. ^ a b Woodward 1953, pp. 62–3.
  62. ^ Woodward 1953, p. 53.
  63. ^ Curry 1865, p. 360.
  64. ^ Woodward 1953, p. 62.
  65. ^ Ricky 1999, pp. 101–02.
  66. ^ Harte 1886, p. 492.
  67. ^ Woodward 1953, pp. 63–4.
  68. ^ a b c Ricky 1999, p. 102.
  69. ^ a b Woodward 1953, p. 66.
  70. ^ Woodward 1953, p. 67.
  71. ^ Woodward 1953, pp. 64–5.
  72. ^ a b c Daily Alta California 1865.
  73. ^ Sherer 1966, pp. 9, 30.
  74. ^ Scrivner 1970, pp. 141–2.
  75. ^ Kroeber & Kroeber 1973, p. 8: Irataba died at the Colorado River Indian Reservation; Devereux 1951, p. 34: Irataba was the last independent Mohave head chief; Woodward 1953, p. 67: Arizona press reported that Irataba died on May 3 or 4, 1874.
  76. ^ Woodward 1953, p. 68.

Bibliography

Further reading

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