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Draft:Arthrospira

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Arthrospira
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Bacteria
Phylum:
Cyanobacteria
Class:
Cyanophyceae
Order:
Oscillatoriales
Family:
Phormidiaceae
Genus:
Arthrospira
Species

About 35.

Spirulina powder 400x, unstained wet mount. Though it is usually called Sprulina powder, it actually contains the genus Arthrospira.

Arthrospira is a genus of free-floating filamentous cyanobacteria characterized by cylindrical, multicellular trichomes in an open left-hand helix. A dietary supplement is made from A. platensis and A. maxima, known as spirulina.[1] The A. maxima and A. platensis species were once classified in the genus Spirulina. ″Although the introduction of two separate genera [Arthrospira and Spirulina] is now generally accepted, there has been much dispute in the past and the resulting taxonomical confusion is tremendous″.[2] ″

Taxonomy

The common name, spirulina, refers to the dried biomass of A. platensis,[3] which belongs to the oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria that cover the groups Cyanobacteria and Prochlorales. These photosynthetic organisms, Cyanobacteria, were first considered as algae until 1962 and for the first time, these blue-green algae were added to prokaryote kingdom and proposed to call these microorganisms as Cyanobacteria [4] where algae are considered to be a very large and diverse group of eukaryotic organisms. This designation was accepted and published in 1974 by Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology.[5] Scientifically, quite a distinction exists between Spirulina and Arthrospira genera. Stizenberger, in 1852, gave the name Arthrospira based on the septa presence, helical form, and multicellular structure, and Gomont, in 1892, confirmed the aseptate form of the Spirulina genus. Geitler in 1932 reunified both members designating them as Spirulina without considering the septum.[6] The worldwide research on microalgae was carried out in the name of Spirulina, but the original species exploited as food with excellent health properties belongs to genus Arthrospira. This common difference between scientists and customers is difficult to change.[5] However, current taxonomy claims that the name spirulina for strains used as food supplements is inappropriate, and agreement exists that Arthrospira is a distinct genus, consisting of over 30 different species, including A. platensis and A. maxima.[7]

Morphology

The Arthrospira genus comprises helical trichomes of varying size and with various degrees of coiling, including tightly coiled morphology to even a straight form.[1]

The helical parameters of the shape of Arthrospira is known to differentiate within- and even within the same- species.[8][9] These differences may be induced by changing environmental conditions, such for example, the growth temperature.[10] The helical shape of the trichomes is only maintained in a liquid environment.[11] The filaments are solitary and reproduce by binary fission, and the cells of the trichomes vary from 2 to 12 μm and can sometimes reach 16 μm.

Biochemical composition

Arthrospira contain high amounts of protein.[1][12] Contents range from 53 to 68 percent by dry weight.[13] Its protein contains all essential amino acids[14]. Arthrospira also contain high amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), about 1.5-2 percent of the total lipid content of 5-6 percent.[15] These PUFAs contain the γ-Linolenic acid (GLA), an essential Omega-6 Fatty acid.[16] Further contents of Arthrospira include Vitamins, Minerals and Photosynthetic pigments.[17] The detailed composition of the proteins and nutrients can be found in the Spirulina (dietary supplement) article.

Occurence

Species of the genus Arthrospira have been isolated from alkaline brackish and saline waters in tropical and subtropical regions. Among the various species included in the genus, A. platensis is the most widely distributed and is mainly found in Africa, but also in Asia. A. maxima is believed to be found in California and Mexico.[6] A. platensis and A. maxima occur naturally in tropical and subtropical lakes with high pH and high concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate.[18] A. platensis occurs in Africa, Asia, and South America, whereas A. maxima is confined to Central America, and A. pacifica is endemic to the Hawaiian islands.[19] Most cultivated spirulina is produced in open-channel raceway ponds, with paddle-wheels used to agitate the water.[18] The largest commercial producers of spirulina are located in the United States, Thailand, India, Taiwan, China, Pakistan, Burma (a.k.a. Myanmar), Greece and Chile.[19]

Present and future uses

Spirulina is widely known as a food supplement today. But there’s a variety of other possible applications for this cyanobacterium. As an example, it is suggested to be used medically for patients for whom it is difficult to chew or swallow food, or as a natural and cheap drug delivery carrier.[20] Further, scientists found that there’s promising results in the treatment of certain cancers, allergies and anemia, as well as hepato-toxicity and vascular diseases.[21] Next to that, spirulina could also be interesting as an animal feed, since research findings linked it to improvements in animal growth, fertility, aesthetic and nutritional product quality.[22] However, there's a certain controversy currently on that topic and more research is needed regarding its use and its benefits for animal feed.[23] Spirulina may also be used in technical applications, such as the biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles, which allows the formation of metallic silver in an environmentally friendly way.[24] Also in the creation of textiles it harbors some advantages, since it can be used for the production of antimicrobial textiles.[25] Also paper or polymer materials may be produced with this versatile small organism.[26]

Cropping Systems

Growth of Arthrospira platensis depends on several factors. To achieve maximum output these factors such as temperature, light and photoinhibition, nutrients, and CO2 level, need to be adjusted. In summer the main limiting factor of Spirulina growth is light. When growing in depth of 12-15cm in water self-shading governs the growth of the individual cell. However, research has shown, that growth is also photoinhibited, and can be increased trough shading.[27] The level of photoihnhibiton versus the lack of light is always a question of cell concentration in the medium. The optimal growth temperature for spirulina is between 35 – 38°C. This poses a major limiting factor outside the tropics, limiting growth to the summer months.[28] Spirulina algae have been grown in fresh water, as well as brackish, and sea water.[29] A Variety of sources have been used for nutrients to grow spirulina. Apart from mineral fertilizer various sources such as, waste effluents, and effluents from fertilizer, starch and noodle factories have been used to grow spirulina.[19][30] Especially the waste effluents are also available in rural locations, allowing small scale production.[31] One of the major hurdles for larger scale production is the complicated harvesting process that makes up for 20-30% of the total production costs. Due to small size, and diluted cultures (mass concentration less than 1 g/L-1) with densities close to that of water microalgae are difficult to separate from their medium.[32]

Cultivation systems

Main article: Culture of microalgae in hatcheries

Open pond

Open pond systems are the most common way to grow Spirulina due to their comparatively low cost. Typically, channels are built in form of a raceway from concrete or PVC coated earth walls, and water is moved by paddle wheels. The open design, however allows contamination by foreign algae and/or microorganisms.Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page). However, this interferes with the greatest selling point for open ponds. The Price.

Closed system

Closed systems have the advantage of being controllable in terms of physical, chemical and biological environment. This allows increased yields as well. Typical forms such as tubes or polyethylene bags, also offer a larger surface to volume ratios than open pond systems.[33] These closed systems help expanding the growing period into the winter months, but often lead to overheating in summer.[34] Closed systems also allow addition of CO2 to the system to increase growth.

Economy of arthrospira and its market potentials and feasibility

Traditional cultivation of arthrospira has a long history, especially in Mexico and around the Lake Chad on the African continent. During the twentieth century, however its beneficial assets were rediscovered and therefore studies about and production of the cynobaterium increased.[35] In the past decades, large-scale production of the cynobacterium developed.[36] Japan started in 1960, and in the following years Mexico and other 22 countries started to grow it in large-scale production over all continents, such as India, Thailand, Myanmar and the United States.[37] In little time, China has become the largest producer worldwide.[38] Especially as a small-scale crop, Spirulina has considerable potential for development, for example for nutritional improvement, livelihood development and environmental purposes. A particular advantage of the production and use of spirulina is that its production can be conducted at a number of different scales, from household culture to intensive commercial production over large areas.[39] New countries where this could happen, should dispose of alkaline-rich ponds on high altitudes or saline-alkaline-rich groundwater or coastal areas with high temperature.[37] Otherwise, technical inputs needed to new spirulina farms are quite basic.[40] This shows potential for expansion. The international market of spirulina is divided into two segments: the one includes NGO’s and institutions focusing on malnutrition and the other includes health conscious people. SmartFish working on Kenya’s production of spirulina argue that an increase of production would be necessary to open the market, which is still local. Economy of scale would face the demand. Growing the product in Africa could offer an advantage in price, which would be kept low compared to other producers worldwide. Furthermore, spirulina as an import good for food supplement, arise the challenge for African countries to surpass quality standards written in import regulations of importing countries. In order to achieve that, costs would probably rise.[40] In other studies, alternative components in the cynobaterium growth were evaluated in order to find ways to lower production costs. Some examples of an alternative means of cultivation are the replacement of sodium nitrate with other sources of nitrogen, addition of organic substrates and use of fertilizers or seawater with and without enrichment of NaHCO3 and NaNO3. Results showed that the concentration of NaNO3 can be reduced, resulting in increased concentrations of biomass production.[41]

References

  1. ^ a b c Ciferri, O. (1983). "Spirulina, the edible microorganism". Microbiological reviews. 47 (4): 551–578. PMC 283708. PMID 6420655.
  2. ^ Mühling, Martin (March 2000). Characterization of Arthrospira (Spirulina) Strains (PDF) (Ph.D.). University of Durham. Archived from the original on 2016-01-23. Retrieved 2016-01-23. {{cite thesis}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ Gershwin, ME; Belay, A (2007). Spirulina in human nutrition and health. CRC Press, USA.
  4. ^ Stanier, RY; Van Niel, Y (January 1962). "The concept of a bacterium". Arch Mikrobiol. 42: 17–35.
  5. ^ a b Sánchez, Bernal-Castillo; Van Niel, J; Rozo, C; Rodríguez, I (2003). "Spirulina (arthrospira): an edible microorganism: a review". Universitas Scientiarum. 8 (1): 7–24.
  6. ^ a b Siva Kiran, RR; Madhu GM; Satyanarayana SV (2016). "Spirulina in combating Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) and Protein Energy Wasting (PEW) - A review". Journal of Nutrition Research. Retrieved February 20, 2016.
  7. ^ Takatomo Fujisawa; Rei Narikawa; Shinobu Okamoto; Shigeki Ehira; Hidehisa Yoshimura; Iwane Suzuki; Tatsuru Masuda; Mari Mochimaru; Shinichi Takaichi; Koichiro Awai; Mitsuo Sekine; Hiroshi Horikawa; Isao Yashiro; Seiha Omata; Hiromi Takarada; Yoko Katano; Hiroki Kosugi; Satoshi Tanikawa; Kazuko Ohmori; Naoki Sato; Masahiko Ikeuchi; Nobuyuki Fujita; Masayuki Ohmori (2010-03-04). "Genomic Structure of an Economically Important Cyanobacterium, Arthrospira (Spirulina) platensis NIES-39". Oxford University Press. PMC 2853384. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |last-author-amp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help) In its turn, it references: Castenholz R.W.; Rippka R.; Herdman M.; Wilmotte A. (2007). Boone D.R.; Castenholz R.W.; Garrity G.M. (eds.). Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology (2nd ed.). Springer: Berlin. pp. 542–3.
  8. ^ Rich, F (1931). "Notes on Arthrospira platensis". Rev. Algol. 6: 75–79.
  9. ^ Marty, F; Busson, F (1970). "Données cytologiques sur deux Cyanophycées:Spirulina platensis (Gom.) Geitler et Spirulina geitleri J. de Toni". Schweizerische Zeitschritf für Hydrologie. 32 (2): 559–565.
  10. ^ Van Eykelenburg, C (1977). "On the morphology and ultrastructure of the cell wall of Spirulina platensis". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 43 (2): 321–327.
  11. ^ FAO Report (2008). A review on culture, production and use of spirulina as food for humans and feeds for domestic animals and fish. Rome: Food and agriculture organization of the united nations.
  12. ^ FAO Report (2008). A review on culture, production and use of spirulina as food for humans and feeds for domestic animals and fish. Rome: Food and agriculture organization of the united nations.
  13. ^ Phang, S. M. (2000). "Spirulina cultivation in digested sago starch factory wastewater". Journal of Applied Phycology. 12: 395–400.
  14. ^ FAO Report (2008). A review on culture, production and use of spirulina as food for humans and feeds for domestic animals and fish. Rome: Food and agriculture organization of the united nations.
  15. ^ FAO Report (2008). A review on culture, production and use of spirulina as food for humans and feeds for domestic animals and fish. Rome: Food and agriculture organization of the united nations.
  16. ^ Spolaore, Pauline; et al. (2006). "Commercial applications of microalgae". Journal of bioscience and bioengineering. 101 (2): 87–96. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  17. ^ FAO Report (2008). A review on culture, production and use of spirulina as food for humans and feeds for domestic animals and fish. Rome: Food and agriculture organization of the united nations.
  18. ^ a b Habib, M. Ahsan B.; Parvin, Mashuda; Huntington, Tim C.; Hasan, Mohammad R. (2008). "A Review on Culture, Production and Use of Spirulina as Food dor Humans and Feeds for Domestic Animals and Fish" (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations. Retrieved November 20, 2011.
  19. ^ a b c Vonshak, A. (ed.). Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): Physiology, Cell-biology and Biotechnology. London: Taylor & Francis, 1997.
  20. ^ Adiba, B. D.; et al. (2008). "Preliminary characterization of food tablets from date ( Phoenix dactylifera L.) and spirulina ( Spirulina sp.) powders". Powder Technology. 208: 725–730. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  21. ^ Asghari, A.; et al. (2016). "A Review on Antioxidant P roperties of Spirulin". Journal of Applied Biotechnology Reports. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  22. ^ Holman, B. W. B.; et al. (2012). "Spirulina as a livestock supplement and animal feed". Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  23. ^ Holman, B. W. B.; et al. (2012). "Spirulina as a livestock supplement and animal feed". Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  24. ^ Mahdieh (2012). "Green biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by Spirulina platensis". Scientia Iranica. 19 (3).
  25. ^ Mahltig, B; et al. (2013). "Modification of algae with zinc, copper and silver ions for usage as natural composite for antibacterial applications". Materials Science and Engineering. 33 (2): 979–983. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  26. ^ Mahltig, B; et al. (2013). "Modification of algae with zinc, copper and silver ions for usage as natural composite for antibacterial applications". Materials Science and Engineering. 33 (2): 979–983. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  27. ^ Vonshak, A; Guy, R (1988). Photoinhibition as a limiting factor in outdoor cultivation of Spirulina platensis. In Stadler et al. eds. Algal Biotechnology. London: Elsevier Applied Sci. Publishers.
  28. ^ Vonshak, A (1997). Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira). In Physiology, Cell Biology and Biotechnology. Basingstoke, Hants, London: Taylor and Francis.
  29. ^ Materassi, R; et al. (1984). "Spirulina culture in sea-water". Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 19: 384–386. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  30. ^ Vetayasuporn, S (2004). "The potential for using wastewater from household scale fermented Thai rice noodle factories for cultivating Spirulina platensis". Pakistan J. Biol. Sci. 7: 1554–1558.
  31. ^ Laliberte, G; et al. (1997). Mass cultivation and wastewater treatment using Spirulina. In A. Vonshak, ed. Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira platensis) Physiology, Cell Biology and Biotechnology. Basingstoke, Hants, London: Taylor and Francis. pp. 159–174. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  32. ^ Barros, Ana I.; et al. (2015). "Harvesting techniques applied to microalgae: A review". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 41: 1489–1500. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  33. ^ Tredici, M; Materassi, R (1992). ""From open ponds to vertical alveolar panels: the Italian experience in the development of reactors for the mass cultivation of phototrophic microorganisms". Journal of Applied Phycology. 4 (3): 221–231.
  34. ^ Tomaselli, L; et al. (1987). "Recent research on Spirulina in Italy". Hydrobiology. 151/152: 79–82. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  35. ^ Ahsan, M; et al. (2008). A Review on Culture, Production and use of Spirulina as Food for Humans and Feeds for Domestic Animals and Fish. Rome: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular No. 1034. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  36. ^ Whitton, B. A. (2012). Ecology of Cyanobacteria II: Their Diversity in Space and Time. Springer. pp. 701–711.
  37. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference ahsan was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  38. ^ Cite error: The named reference whitton was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  39. ^ Smart Fish (2011). "Spirulina – a livelihood and a business venture". Report: SF/2011.
  40. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference smart fish was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  41. ^ De Castro; et al. (2015). "Biomass production by Arthrospira platensis under different culture conditions". Food Science and Technology. 35 (1). {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  • Guiry, M.D.; Guiry, G.M. "Arthrospira". AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway.
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