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|caption= Blue Army troops and General [[Józef Haller de Hallenburg|Józef Haller]], c.1918
|caption= Blue Army troops and General [[Józef Haller de Hallenburg|Józef Haller]], c.1918
|dates= 1917 - 1921
|dates= 1917 - 1921
|country= *{{FRA}} - [[French Third Republic]]
|country= {{FRA}} - [[French Third Republic]] {{POL}} - [[Second Polish Republic]]
*{{POL}} - [[Second Polish Republic]]
|branch= [[Polish Legions in World War I|Polish Legions]]
|branch= [[Polish Legions in World War I|Polish Legions]]
|command_structure=
|command_structure=
|size= 35,000 Poles, 23,000 [[Polish American|Polish-Americans]], 300 [[Polish Brazilian|Polish-Brazilians]] (Approximate numbers)
|size= Approximate numbers
|battles= [[World War I]], [[Polish–Ukrainian War]], [[Polish–Soviet War]]
*35,000 Poles
*23,000 [[Polish American|Polish-Americans]]
*300 [[Polish Brazilian|Polish-Brazilians]]
|battles= *[[World War I]]
*[[Polish–Ukrainian War]]
*[[Polish–Soviet War]]
<!-- Commanders and leaders -->
<!-- Commanders and leaders -->
|commander1= Generał broni [[Józef Haller]]
|commander1= Generał broni [[Józef Haller de Hallenburg]]
|commander1_label= General
|commander1_label= General
<!-- Insignia -->
<!-- Insignia -->
}}
}}


The '''Blue Army''' ([[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Błękitna Armia''), or '''Haller's Army''', was the Polish army formed in France in the latter stages of [[World War I]]. The names come from the troops' French blue uniforms and the army's commander, General [[Józef Haller de Hallenburg]].
The '''Blue Army''' ([[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Błękitna Armia''), or '''Haller's Army''', was a Polish military contingent force created in France during the latter stages of [[World War I]]. The name comes from the French blue army uniforms worn by the soldiers; and the term was subsequently adopted by General [[Józef Haller de Hallenburg]], who was the army's commanding general.


The army was created in June 1917 as part of Polish units allied with the [[Triple Entente|Entente]]. After the [[World War I|Great War]], the army was transferred to Poland, where it took part in renascent Poland's eastern conflicts. During the [[Polish-Ukrainian War]], the Blue Army helped break the stalemate in Poland's favor. During the [[Polish-Bolshevik War]], the Blue Army played a critical role in Poland's successful defense against Soviet forces.
The army was formed on 4 June 1917, and was comprised of Polish volunteers fighting alongside the [[Triple Entente|Entente]]. After fighting on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] in France during [[World War I]], the army was transferred to Poland; where it joined other Polish military formations fighting in the east. During the [[Polish-Ukrainian War]], the Blue Army helped to break a stalemate in Poland's favor, and during the [[Polish-Bolshevik War]], Haller's troops played a critical role in the coutry's successful defense against the advancing Bolshevik forces.

During the fighting on the Ukrainian front, individual soldiers of the Blue Army were involved in antisemitic violence,<ref name = "Eichenberg">Julia Eichenberg (2010).[http://www.tara.tcd.ie/bitstream/2262/60765/1/The%20Dark%20Side%20of%20Independence-%20Paramilitary%20Violence%20in%20Ireland%20and%20Poland%20after%20the%20First%20World%20War.pdf The Dark Side of Independence: Paramilitary Violence in Ireland and Poland after the First World War] ''Contemporary European history, 19, pp.231-248, Cambridge University Press</ref><ref name="international"/> where political Jewish organizations found themselves sharing ideological platforms with Bolshevik Russia, as well as communist elements in Western Ukraine, and post war revolutionary Germany.<ref name="international-review">{{cite web | url=http://www.h-net.org/~diplo/essays/PDF/Case-Fink.pdf | title=Review of Carole Fink, ''Defending the Rights of Others'' | publisher=Cambridge University Press, 2006 | work=H-Diplo Review (at) H-Net: Humanities and Social Sciences Online | date=6 September 2011 | accessdate=2013-04-11 | author=Holly Case, Cornell University | format=PDF file, direct download 146 KB | page=4}}</ref>


== History ==
== History ==
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===Western Front===
===Western Front===
[[File:5th Siberian Polish Division 1919.jpg|thumb|right|Soldiers of the [[5th Rifle Division (Poland)|5th Rifle Division]] in Siberia, c.1919]]
[[File:5th Siberian Polish Division 1919.jpg|thumb|right|Soldiers of the [[5th Rifle Division (Poland)|5th Rifle Division]] in Siberia, c.1919]]
⚫
The first units were formed after the signing of a 1917 alliance by French President [[Raymond Poincaré]] and the Polish statesman [[Ignacy Jan Paderewski]]. A majority of recruits were either Poles serving in the French army, or former [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] from the German and Austro-Hungarian imperial armies (approximately 35,000 men). An additional 23,000 were [[Polish American]]s. Other Poles flocked to the army from all over the world as well — these units included recruits from the former [[Russian Expeditionary Force in France]] and the Polish diaspora in [[Brazil]] (more than 300 men).


⚫
The first units were formed after the official signing of a 1917 alliance by French President [[Raymond Poincaré]] and the Polish statesman [[Ignacy Jan Paderewski]]. The majority of the recruits, approximately 35,000 of them were either Poles serving in the French army, or former captured Polish [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]]; who were conscripted, and forced to serve in the [[German Empire|Imperial German]] and [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] armies. Many other Poles also joined the army from all over the world — these units included recruits from the United States, with an additional 23,000 [[Polish-American]] volunteers, and former troops of the [[Russian Expeditionary Force in France]]. Also, Polish diaspora form [[Brazil]] joined the army, with more than 300 men volunteering to take up the cause.
⚫
The army was initially under French political control and under the military command of General [[Louis Archinard]]. However, on February 23, 1918, political sovereignty was granted to the [[Polish National Committee (1917-1919)|Polish National Committee]] and soon other Polish units were formed, most notably the [[Polish 4th Rifle Division|4th]] and [[Polish 5th Rifle Division|5th Rifle Divisions]] in [[Imperial Russia|Russia]]. On September 28 Russia formally signed an agreement with the Entente that accepted the Polish units in France as ''the only, independent, allied and co-belligerent Polish army''. On October 4, 1918 the National Committee appointed General Józef Haller de Hallenburg as overall commander.

⚫
The Blue Army was initially under direct French military control, and commanded by General [[Louis Archinard]]. However, on 23 February 1918 political sovereignty was granted to the [[Polish National Committee (1917-1919)|Polish National Committee]], and soon more Polish army units were formed; most notably the [[Polish 4th Rifle Division|4th]] and [[Polish 5th Rifle Division|5th Rifle Divisions]] in [[Imperial Russia|Russia]]. On 28 September Russia formally signed an agreement with the Entente that accepted the Polish units in France as ''the only, independent, allied and co-belligerent Polish army''. On 4 October 1918, the National Committee appointed General [[Józef Haller de Hallenburg]] as chief commander of the army.


The first unit to enter combat on the [[Western Front (WWI)|Western Front]] was the 1st Rifle Regiment (''1 pułk strzelców''), fighting from July 1918 in [[Champagne (province)|Champagne]] and the [[Vosges mountains]]. By October the entire 1st Rifle Division joined the fight in the area of [[Rambervillers]] and [[Raon-l'Étape]].
The first unit to enter combat on the [[Western Front (WWI)|Western Front]] was the 1st Rifle Regiment (''1 pułk strzelców''), fighting from July 1918 in [[Champagne (province)|Champagne]] and the [[Vosges mountains]]. By October the entire 1st Rifle Division joined the fight in the area of [[Rambervillers]] and [[Raon-l'Étape]].
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===Transfer to Poland===
===Transfer to Poland===
[[File:Polish Army in France WWI recruitment poster.jpg|thumb|175px|left|American recruitment poster for the [[Polish Army in France]], by W.T. Benda]]
[[File:Polish Army in France WWI recruitment poster.jpg|thumb|175px|left|American recruitment poster for the [[Polish Army in France]], by W.T. Benda]]
⚫
The army continued to gather new recruits after the end of The Great War on November 11, 1918, many of them ethnic Poles who had been conscripted into the Austrian army and later taken prisoner by the Allies. By early 1919 it numbered 68,500 men, fully equipped by the French government. After being denied permission by the German government to enter Poland via the Baltic port city of Danzig ([[Gdańsk]]), transport was arranged via train. Between April and June of that year the units were transported together intact to a reborn [[Poland]] across Germany in sealed train cars. Weapons were secured in separate cars and kept under guard to appease German concerns about a foreign army traversing its territory. Immediately after its arrival the divisions were integrated into the overall Polish Army and transported to the fronts of the Polish-Ukrainian War, then being fought over control of eastern [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]].


⚫
The army continued to gather new recruits after the end of World War I, on 11 November 1918. Many of these volunteers were ethnic Poles who had been conscripted into the German, Austrian and Russian armies, and later discharged after the war's end. By early 1919 the Blue Army numbered 68,500 men, and was fully equipped by the French government. After being denied permission by the German government to enter Poland via the Baltic port city of Danzig ([[Gdańsk]]), transports were arranged via train. Between April and June of that year, the units were moved together to a reborn [[Poland]], across Germany in sealed train cars. Weapons were secured in separate cars and kept under guard; to appease German concerns about a foreign army traversing its territory. Immediately after its arrival the divisions were integrated into the regular Polish Army, and sent to the front lines to fight in the [[Polish-Ukrainian War]]; which was being fought in eastern [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]].
⚫
The perilous journey from France, through revolutionary Germany, into Poland, in the spring of 1919 has been documented by those who lived through it.

⚫
The perilous journey from France, through revolutionary Germany, and into Poland during the spring of 1919 has been documented by those who lived through it.


Captain Stanislaw I. Nastal:
Captain Stanislaw I. Nastal:
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[[File:Ft17 dyneburg8.jpg|thumb|right|[[FT-17]] tanks of the 1st Tank Regiment during the [[Polish-Bolshevik War]], c.1920]]
[[File:Ft17 dyneburg8.jpg|thumb|right|[[FT-17]] tanks of the 1st Tank Regiment during the [[Polish-Bolshevik War]], c.1920]]


Haller's Army changed the balance of power in [[Galicia (eastern Europe)|Galicia]] and in [[Volhynia]], and its arrival allowed the Poles to repel the Ukrainians and establish a demarcation line at the river [[Zbruch]] on May 14, 1919. Haller's army was well equipped by the Western allies and partially staffed with experienced French officers specifically in order to fight against the Bolsheviks and not the [[Ukrainian Galician Army|forces of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic]]. Despite this obligation, the Poles dispatched Haller's army against the Ukrainians rather than the Bolsheviks in order to break the stalemate in eastern Galicia. The allies sent several telegrams ordering the Poles to halt their offensive as using of the French-equipped army against the Ukrainian specifically contradicted the conditions of the French help, but these were ignored<ref name="Watt"/> with Poles claiming that "all Ukrainians were Bolsheviks or something close to it".<ref name="Subtelny370"/>
Haller's Army changed the balance of power in [[Galicia (eastern Europe)|Galicia]] and [[Volhynia]]. Its arrival allowed the Poles to repel the Ukrainians, and establish a demarcation line at the river [[Zbruch]] on 14 May 1919. Haller's army was well equipped by the Western Allies, and partially staffed with experienced French officers specifically in order to fight against the Bolsheviks; and not the [[Ukrainian Galician Army|forces of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic]]. Despite this obligation, the Poles dispatched Haller's troops against the Ukrainians rather than the Bolsheviks in order to break the stalemate in eastern Galicia. The allies sent several telegrams ordering the Poles to halt their offensive as using of the French-equipped army against the Ukrainian specifically contradicted the conditions of the French military advisors, but these demands were ignored<ref name="Watt"/> with Poles claiming that "all Ukrainians were Bolsheviks".<ref name="Subtelny370"/>


In July 1919 the Army was transferred to the border with Germany in Silesia, where it prepared defences against any possible German invasion.
In July 1919 the Army was transferred to the border with Germany in Silesia, where it prepared defences against a possible German invasion of Poland.


Haller's well trained and highly motivated troops, as well as their [[airplane]]s and excellent [[FT-17]] tanks, formed part of the core of the Polish forces during the ensuing [[Polish-Bolshevik War]].
Haller's well trained and highly motivated troops, as well as their [[airplane]]s and excellent [[FT-17]] tanks, formed part of the core of the Polish forces during the ensuing [[Polish-Bolshevik War]].


===Postwar===
===Postwar===
After the war, the Polish-American volunteers who served within Haller's Army were not recognized as veterans by either the American or Polish governments. This led to friction between the Polish community in the United States and the Polish government, and subsequent refusal by Polish Americans to again help the Polish cause militarily.<ref name="communities"/>
After the war, the Polish-American volunteers who served within Haller's Army were not recognized as veterans by either the American or Polish governments. This led to friction between the Polish community in the United States and the Polish government; and resulted in the subsequent refusal by Polish-Americans to again help the Polish cause militarily.<ref name="communities"/>


The 15th Infantry Rifle Regiment of the Blue Army was the basis for the [[49th Hutsul Rifle Regiment]] of the [[11th Infantry Division (Poland)]].
The 15th Infantry Rifle Regiment of the Blue Army was the basis for the [[49th Hutsul Rifle Regiment]] of the [[11th Infantry Division (Poland)]].
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===Controversies===
===Controversies===
Although Poles held the Blue Army in high regard for its successful effort in stopping the [[Bolshevik]] advance into [[Central Europe]], and securing Poland's unstable eastern border, many ethnic [[Ukrainians]] and [[Jews]] objected to its conduct during the war.<ref name="holocaust"/> After their arrival in the east, Haller's troops engaged in hostile acts against the local Ukrainian and Jewish populations.<ref name="international"/> In [[Częstochowa]] on 27 May 1919, a soldier by the name of Stanislaw Dziadecki (who served in a rifle division), was shot and wounded while on patrol, in an apparent sniper attack; a local Jewish tailor, who sympathized with the Bolshevik cause was suspected of committing the attack.<ref name="Wakounig2012">{{cite book|author=Marija Wakounig|title=From Collective Memories to Intercultural Exchanges|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5e5w8T1DNWwC&pg=PA196|date=28 November 2012|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-643-90287-0|page=196}}</ref> In response, Haller's troops aided by local Polish civilians conducted a three hour assault on the town's Jewish quarter that left approximately 5 Jews dead and 45 wounded.<ref name="Carole Finke 2006 pg. 230">Carole Finke. (2006). Defending the Rights of Others The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878–1938. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 230</ref> As the army traveled further east, Haller's troops as a way to exact retribution; looted Jewish houses, pushed local Jews off moving trains, and with their bayonets cut off the beards of Orthodox Jews.<ref name="bare_url"/>
Although Poles hold the Blue Army in high regard for its successful effort in stopping the [[Bolshevik]] advance into [[Central Europe]] and securing Poland's unstable eastern border, many ethnic [[Ukrainians]] and [[Jews]] generally see its conduct during the war in a negative light.<ref name="holocaust"/>


After their arrival in the east, Haller's troops engaged in acts of violence against the local Jewish population.<ref name="international"/> As a result, Jews perceived Haller's Army as particularly harmful.<ref name="bare_url"/><ref name="HeikoHaumann"/><ref name="web"/> In [[Częstochowa]] on 27 May 1919, a soldier by the name of Stanislaw Dziadecki who served in one of the Blue Army's rifle divisions, was shot and wounded while on patrol; a local Jewish tailor, who sympathized with the Bolshevik cause was suspected of committing the attack.<ref name="Wakounig2012">{{cite book|author=Marija Wakounig|title=From Collective Memories to Intercultural Exchanges|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5e5w8T1DNWwC&pg=PA196|date=28 November 2012|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-643-90287-0|page=196}}</ref> Later that day, Haller's troops aided by local Polish civilians conducted a three hour assault on the town's Jewish quarter that left 5 Jews dead and 45 wounded.<ref name="Carole Finke 2006 pg. 230">Carole Finke. (2006). Defending the Rights of Others The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878–1938. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 230</ref> As the army traveled further east, Haller's soldiers as a way to exact retribution looted Jewish houses, pushed local Jews off moving trains, and with their bayonets cut off the beards of Orthodox Jews; the latter act was referred to by Haller's soldiers as "civilizing" the Jews.<ref name="bare_url"/> Haller's army, along with the Poznań regiments, committed [[pogroms]] in [[Sambir]], the area around [[Lviv]], and Grodek Jagiellonski.<ref>Alexander Victor Prusin (2005). ''Nationalizing a Borderland: War, Ethnicity, and Anti-Jewish Violence in East Galicia, 1914-1920''. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, pg. 103. "Two Polish units - Poznań regiments and General Jozef Haller's Army - especially earned the reputation as notorious Jew baiters and staged brutal pogroms in Sambor, the Lwow district, and Grodek Jagiellonski."</ref> Among the worst offenders within Haller's army were the 23,000 Polish-American volunteers, who were relatively late in joining the campaign, and thus poorly disciplined. The soldiers and officers who rightly or wrongly targeted local Jewish, and Ukrainian civilians believed that they were acting in Poland's defense, assuming that the victims were collaborating with their enemies; either the [[Ukrainian Galician Army]], or Bolshevik Russia.<ref name="threatening"/> But, many of the civilians targeted were not hostile to the Polish military in any way.<ref name="binghamton"/> It is likely that the cultural shock of finding themselves confronted by a multitude of unfamiliar ethnic, political, and religious groups that inhabited Western Ukraine led to a feeling of vulnerability, that in turn provoked the violent outbursts.<ref name="Eichenberg"/>
Haller's army along with the Poznań regiments, launched attacks against Jewish towns in [[Sambir]], the area around [[Lviv]], and Grodek Jagiellonski, where local Jewish committees actively mobilized able-bodied men to fight in the [[Ukrainian Galician Army]], and Jewish youth served as scouts for the Ukrainian military.<ref>Alexander Victor Prusin (2005). ''Nationalizing a Borderland: War, Ethnicity, and Anti-Jewish Violence in East Galicia, 1914-1920''. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, pg. 100."</ref> Most of the attacks that were carried out against local civilian populations that did occur, were done by army's units made up of Polish-American volunteers; where many of the troops who (rightly or wrongly) targeted local Ukrainian and Jewish populations, assumed that the civilians were collaborating with the enemy; either the [[Ukrainian Galician Army]], or Bolshevik Russia.<ref name="threatening"/> But, as was the case; many of the civilians targeted were not hostile to the Polish military in any way.<ref name="binghamton"/> It is likely, that due to a cultural shock of finding themselves confronted by a multitude of unfamiliar ethnic, political, and religious groups that inhabited Western Ukraine led to a feeling of vulnerability, that in turn provoked the uncontrolled violent outbursts.<ref name="Eichenberg"/> In an effort to curb the abuses, General Józef Haller himself issued a proclamation demanding that his soldiers stop cutting off beards of Orthodox Jews,<ref name="publication"/> Also, in due course; individual soldiers involved in confirmed acts of antisemitism did receive punishment for their abusive actions.

In an effort to curb the abuses, General Józef Haller himself issued a proclamation demanding that his soldiers stop cutting off beards of Orthodox Jews,<ref name="publication"/> and complained about the violent antisemitism of the Polish-American units to the American envoy [[Hugh S. Gibson]].<ref name="Kapiszewski"/> Also, in due course the individual soldiers involved in confirmed acts of antisemitism did receive punishment for their abusive actions. To counter some of the false or exaggerated claims of antisemitism that were reported by the press, Polish Government officials, supported by their French allies, noted that many of the alleged antisemitic tracts attributed to the Blue Army were in fact a product of willful disinformation based purely on hearsay and confabulation emanating from Russian and German government sources in an effort to discredit the new Polish Government, and in the process weaken the much needed Allied support for the new Polish State.<ref name="international"/> In cases when Polish sources couldn't deny the existence of anti-Jewish violence, the authorities alluded that Jews charged too much for food during food shortages, or claimed that the violence was a result of "food riots" rather than pogroms, and blamed "German agents" for inciting the violence.<ref name="Carole Finke 2006 pg. 230"/>

[[File:Ukrainians in Austria-Hungary 1911.gif|right|thumb|175px|{{legend|#dee78c|Ukrainian inhabited areas of north-eastern [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], claimed by [[West Ukrainian People's Republic]], 1918}}]]

The United States sent an envoy to Poland, [[Hugh S. Gibson]], a man who stood out for his antisemitism.<ref name = "Biskupski">Mieczysław B. Biskupski, Piotr Stefan Wandycz. (2003). ''Ideology, Politics, and Diplomacy in East Central Europe''. Rochester: University of Rochester Press pg.67</ref> Hugh Gibson along with Dr. Boris Bogen, who was the general director of European relief operations of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC), were tasked by the United States Government to investigate the situation.<ref>Kapiszewski, Conflicting Reports on the Situation of Jews in Poland in the Aftermath of World War I published in the University of Krakow’s Studia Judaica, No 7, 2004, p. 364</ref> Throughout their stay in Poland, Gibson and his colleagues ridiculed Jewish traits, customs, and appearance.<ref name = "Biskupski"/> The official report sent back to Washington stated that many of the newspaper reports in the American press had been inflated, and Gibson himself wrote in his correspondence that he was concerned about separating fact from rumor. In his investigation, Hugh S. Gibson also addressed the issue of "food riots", and after investigating the circumstances reported that an even larger number of Christian shops had also been ransacked, thus disputing the claim that all the violence was strictly a product of anti-Jewish sentiment. Gibson also claimed that Zionists were conspiring with Berlin; according to historian Carole Fink, Gibson emphasized Jews' "social, economic, and ideological transgressions" and described the victims of the pogroms as "exploiters." <ref>Carole Fink. (2006).Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878-1938. Cambridge University Press, pg. 185</ref> Gibson also expressed the opinion that Jews in Poland ought to "reform themselves" and assimilate into general Polish society.<ref>Carole Fink. (2006).Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878-1938. Cambridge University Press, pg. 250</ref>
The Blue Army was wrongly accused of committing the [[Lwow pogrom (1918)|Lviv Pogrom]] of 1918. Historian [[William W. Hagen]] claimed that after helping to capture [[Lviv]], some army units together with Polish civilians, engaged in three days of violence against the Jewish and Ukrainian inhabitants of the city, resulting in hundreds of civilian deaths.<ref name="reactions"/> But the army's participation in the pogrom is highly disputed, and according to the ''Cambridge History of Poland'', when the Lviv Pogrom actually took place the Blue Army was still in France fighting on the [[Western Front]]. Also, it has been documented that the first units did not reach Poland until the spring of 1919, nearly five months after the actual pogrom had happened.<ref name="google"/> The ''Kronika Polski'' lists 14 April 1919 as the start of the first transports form France to Poland,<ref name="kluszczynski"/> and historian Kay Lundgreen-Nielsen stated that the first units of the army did not leave France until 15 April 1919; its departure having been delayed by opposition from Britain and the United States.<ref name="google2"/> Thus, requiring a special protocol before the Blue Army was allowed to return home to Poland.<ref name="google3"/>


Despite examples of antisemitic behavior exhibited by some troops within the Blue Army,<ref name="bare_url"/><ref name="HeikoHaumann"/><ref name="Goldstein"/> many [[Polish Jews]] enlisted and fought within its ranks. Some even received a commission and took up leadership positions. Jews serving in the Blue Army's 43rd Regiment of Eastern Frontier Riflemen were listed as combat fatalities, and historian Edward Goldstein has identified approximately five percent of the unit's battle casualties as having a Jewish background.<ref name="Goldstein"/>
Despite examples of antisemitic behavior exhibited by some troops within the Blue Army,<ref name="bare_url"/><ref name="HeikoHaumann"/><ref name="Goldstein"/> many [[Polish Jews]] enlisted and fought within its ranks. Some even received a commission and took up leadership positions. Jews serving in the Blue Army's 43rd Regiment of Eastern Frontier Riflemen were listed as combat fatalities, and historian Edward Goldstein has identified approximately five percent of the unit's battle casualties as having a Jewish background.<ref name="Goldstein"/>
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<ref name = "Goldstein">Goldstein, Edward. [http://www.polishroots.com/Research/History/hallers_jews/tabid/286/Default.aspx ''Jews in Haller's Army.''] The Galitzianer, the quarterly journal of Gesher Galicia, May 2002.</ref>
<ref name = "Goldstein">Goldstein, Edward. [http://www.polishroots.com/Research/History/hallers_jews/tabid/286/Default.aspx ''Jews in Haller's Army.''] The Galitzianer, the quarterly journal of Gesher Galicia, May 2002.</ref>

<ref name = "Kapiszewski">Andrzej Kapiszewski. (2004). [http://www.studiajudaica.pl/sj14kapi.pdf CONTROVERSIAL REPORTS ON THE SITUATION OF JEWS IN POLAND IN THE AFTERMATH OF WORLD WAR I: THE CONFLICT BETWEEN THE US AMBASSADOR IN WARSAW HUGH GIBSON AND AMERICAN JEWISH LEADERS] pg. 276</ref>


<ref name="HeikoHaumann">Heiko Haumann. (2002). ''A history of East European Jews '' Central European University Press, pg. 215</ref>
<ref name="HeikoHaumann">Heiko Haumann. (2002). ''A history of East European Jews '' Central European University Press, pg. 215</ref>
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<ref name="dabrowski">Outline of the Wartime History of the 45th Regiment of Eastern Frontier Infantry Riflemen, Major Jerzy Dabrowski, Warsaw 1928 {{page needed|date=November 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="dabrowski">Outline of the Wartime History of the 45th Regiment of Eastern Frontier Infantry Riflemen, Major Jerzy Dabrowski, Warsaw 1928 {{page needed|date=November 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="google">William Fiddian Reddaway, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=As43AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA477&dq=Haller+%22Blue+Army%22&hl=en&ei=urkmTc7CFsaQnwe3vbSNAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFAQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Haller%20%22Blue%20Army%22&f=false The Cambridge history of Poland, Volume 2]'', pg. 477, Cambridge University Press, 1971.</ref>

<ref name="google2">Kay Lundgreen-Nielsen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=uycgAAAAMAAJ&q=The+final+solution+was+not+found+until+April,+the+first+troops+leaving+France+on+15+April&dq=The+final+solution+was+not+found+until+April,+the+first+troops+leaving+France+on+15+April&hl=en&ei=udQpTbi6DsvKnAfC7bm3AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA The Polish problem at the Paris Peace Conference: a study of the policies of the Great Powers and the Poles, 1918-1919]'', pg. 225, Odense University Press, 1979</ref>

<ref name="google3">Manfred F. Boemeke, Gerald D. Feldman, Elisabeth Gläser, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zqj-oHp4KsgC&pg=PA403&dq=The+Treaty+of+Versailles:+a+reassessment+after+75+years,+Volume+191&hl=en&ei=3dYpTYnUHMzAnAfP8ri-AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Haller%20Army&f=false The Treaty of Versailles: a reassessment after 75 years, Volume 1919]'', pg. 324, Cambridge University Press, 1998</ref>


<ref name="holocaust">Antony Polonsky. (1990). ''My brother's keeper?: recent Polish debates on the Holocaust.'' Institute for Polish-Jewish Studies: Oxford, England. pg. 100.</ref>
<ref name="holocaust">Antony Polonsky. (1990). ''My brother's keeper?: recent Polish debates on the Holocaust.'' Institute for Polish-Jewish Studies: Oxford, England. pg. 100.</ref>


<ref name="international">Carole Fink. (2006).''Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878-1938''. Cambridge University Press, pg. 227</ref>
<ref name="international">Carole Fink. (2006).''Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878-1938''. Cambridge University Press, pg. 227</ref>

<ref name="kluszczynski">Andrzej Nowak, ''Kronika Polski'', Kluszczynski Publishers, 1998 {{page needed|date=November 2011}}</ref>


<ref name="publication">American Jewish Committee.(1920). ''American Jewish year book, Volume 22 ''. Jewish Publication Society of America pg. 250</ref>
<ref name="publication">American Jewish Committee.(1920). ''American Jewish year book, Volume 22 ''. Jewish Publication Society of America pg. 250</ref>

<ref name="reactions">William W. Hagen. Murder in the East: German-Jewish Liberal Reactions to Anti-Jewish Violence in Poland and Other East European Lands, 1918–1920. ''Central European History'', Volume 34, Number 1, 2001 , pp. 1-30. Page 8.</ref>


<ref name="skarzynski">The Polish Army in France in Light of the Facts, Wincenty Skarzynski, Warsaw 1929 {{page needed|date=November 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="skarzynski">The Polish Army in France in Light of the Facts, Wincenty Skarzynski, Warsaw 1929 {{page needed|date=November 2011}}</ref>
Line 169: Line 143:


<ref name="threatening">Joanna B. Michlic. (2006). ''Poland's threatening other: the image of the Jew from 1880 to the present ''. University of Nebraska Press, pg. 117</ref>
<ref name="threatening">Joanna B. Michlic. (2006). ''Poland's threatening other: the image of the Jew from 1880 to the present ''. University of Nebraska Press, pg. 117</ref>

<ref name="web">Justyna Wozniakowska. (2002). Master's Thesis, Central European University Nationalism Studios Program [http://web.ceu.hu/nation/theses/wozniakowska0102.pdf CONFRONTING HISTORY, RESHAPING MEMORY: THE DEBATE ABOUT JEDWABNE IN THE POLISH PRESS] pg. 22</ref>


<ref name="wyczolkowski">Outline of the Wartime History of the 43rd regiment of the Eastern Frontier Riflemen, Major Stefan Wyczolkowski, Warsaw 1928 {{page needed|date=November 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="wyczolkowski">Outline of the Wartime History of the 43rd regiment of the Eastern Frontier Riflemen, Major Stefan Wyczolkowski, Warsaw 1928 {{page needed|date=November 2011}}</ref>

Revision as of 21:11, 25 February 2014

For other uses, see Blue Army (disambiguation).
Blue Army or Haller's Army
Blue Army troops and General Józef Haller, c.1918
Active1917 - 1921
Country France - French Third Republic  Poland - Second Polish Republic
BranchPolish Legions
Size35,000 Poles, 23,000 Polish-Americans, 300 Polish-Brazilians (Approximate numbers)
EngagementsWorld War I, Polish–Ukrainian War, Polish–Soviet War
Commanders
GeneralGenerał broni Józef Haller de Hallenburg

The Blue Army (Polish: Błękitna Armia), or Haller's Army, was a Polish military contingent force created in France during the latter stages of World War I. The name comes from the French blue army uniforms worn by the soldiers; and the term was subsequently adopted by General Józef Haller de Hallenburg, who was the army's commanding general.

The army was formed on 4 June 1917, and was comprised of Polish volunteers fighting alongside the Entente. After fighting on the Western Front in France during World War I, the army was transferred to Poland; where it joined other Polish military formations fighting in the east. During the Polish-Ukrainian War, the Blue Army helped to break a stalemate in Poland's favor, and during the Polish-Bolshevik War, Haller's troops played a critical role in the coutry's successful defense against the advancing Bolshevik forces.

History

Western Front

Soldiers of the 5th Rifle Division in Siberia, c.1919

The first units were formed after the official signing of a 1917 alliance by French President Raymond Poincaré and the Polish statesman Ignacy Jan Paderewski. The majority of the recruits, approximately 35,000 of them were either Poles serving in the French army, or former captured Polish prisoners of war; who were conscripted, and forced to serve in the Imperial German and Austro-Hungarian armies. Many other Poles also joined the army from all over the world — these units included recruits from the United States, with an additional 23,000 Polish-American volunteers, and former troops of the Russian Expeditionary Force in France. Also, Polish diaspora form Brazil joined the army, with more than 300 men volunteering to take up the cause.

The Blue Army was initially under direct French military control, and commanded by General Louis Archinard. However, on 23 February 1918 political sovereignty was granted to the Polish National Committee, and soon more Polish army units were formed; most notably the 4th and 5th Rifle Divisions in Russia. On 28 September Russia formally signed an agreement with the Entente that accepted the Polish units in France as the only, independent, allied and co-belligerent Polish army. On 4 October 1918, the National Committee appointed General Józef Haller de Hallenburg as chief commander of the army.

The first unit to enter combat on the Western Front was the 1st Rifle Regiment (1 pułk strzelców), fighting from July 1918 in Champagne and the Vosges mountains. By October the entire 1st Rifle Division joined the fight in the area of Rambervillers and Raon-l'Étape.

Transfer to Poland

American recruitment poster for the Polish Army in France, by W.T. Benda

The army continued to gather new recruits after the end of World War I, on 11 November 1918. Many of these volunteers were ethnic Poles who had been conscripted into the German, Austrian and Russian armies, and later discharged after the war's end. By early 1919 the Blue Army numbered 68,500 men, and was fully equipped by the French government. After being denied permission by the German government to enter Poland via the Baltic port city of Danzig (Gdańsk), transports were arranged via train. Between April and June of that year, the units were moved together to a reborn Poland, across Germany in sealed train cars. Weapons were secured in separate cars and kept under guard; to appease German concerns about a foreign army traversing its territory. Immediately after its arrival the divisions were integrated into the regular Polish Army, and sent to the front lines to fight in the Polish-Ukrainian War; which was being fought in eastern Galicia.

The perilous journey from France, through revolutionary Germany, and into Poland during the spring of 1919 has been documented by those who lived through it.

Captain Stanislaw I. Nastal: Preparations for the departure lasted for some time. The question of transit became a difficult and complicated problem. Finally after a long wait a decision was made and officially agreed upon between the Allies and Germany.

The first transports with the Blue Army set out in the first half of April 1919. Train after train tore along though Germany to the homeland, to Poland.[1]

Major Stefan Wyczolkowski: On 15 April 1919 the regiment began its trip to Poland from the Bayon railroad station in four transports, via Mainz, Erfurt, Leipzig, Kalisz, and Warsaw, and arrived in Poland, where it was quartered in individual battalions; in Chełm 1st Battalion, supernumerary company and command of the regiment; 3rd Battalion in Kowel; and the 2nd Battalion in Wlodzimierz.[2]

Major Stanislaw Bobrowski: On 13 April 1919 the regiment set out across Germany for Poland, to reinforce other units of the Polish army being created in the homeland amid battle, shielding with their youthful breasts the resurrected Poland.[3]

Major Jerzy Dabrowski: Finally on 18 April 1919 the regiment’s first transport set out for Poland. On 23 April 1919 the leading divisions of the 3rd Regiment of Polish Riflemen set foot on Polish soil, now free thanks to their own efforts.[4]

Lt. Wincenty Skarzynski: Weeks passed. April 1919 arrived – then plans were changed: it was decided irrevocably to transport our army to Gdańsk instead by trains, through Germany. Many officers came from Poland, among them Major Gorecki, to coordinate technical details with General Haller.[5]

After World War I

FT-17 tanks of the 1st Tank Regiment during the Polish-Bolshevik War, c.1920

Haller's Army changed the balance of power in Galicia and Volhynia. Its arrival allowed the Poles to repel the Ukrainians, and establish a demarcation line at the river Zbruch on 14 May 1919. Haller's army was well equipped by the Western Allies, and partially staffed with experienced French officers specifically in order to fight against the Bolsheviks; and not the forces of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic. Despite this obligation, the Poles dispatched Haller's troops against the Ukrainians rather than the Bolsheviks in order to break the stalemate in eastern Galicia. The allies sent several telegrams ordering the Poles to halt their offensive as using of the French-equipped army against the Ukrainian specifically contradicted the conditions of the French military advisors, but these demands were ignored[6] with Poles claiming that "all Ukrainians were Bolsheviks".[7]

In July 1919 the Army was transferred to the border with Germany in Silesia, where it prepared defences against a possible German invasion of Poland.

Haller's well trained and highly motivated troops, as well as their airplanes and excellent FT-17 tanks, formed part of the core of the Polish forces during the ensuing Polish-Bolshevik War.

Postwar

After the war, the Polish-American volunteers who served within Haller's Army were not recognized as veterans by either the American or Polish governments. This led to friction between the Polish community in the United States and the Polish government; and resulted in the subsequent refusal by Polish-Americans to again help the Polish cause militarily.[8]

The 15th Infantry Rifle Regiment of the Blue Army was the basis for the 49th Hutsul Rifle Regiment of the 11th Infantry Division (Poland).

As with most of the history related to the Polish-Soviet War, information on the Blue Army was censored, distorted and repressed by the Soviet Union during its communist oppression of the 1945–1989 People's Republic of Poland.

Polish-Americans who fought in the Blue Army during World War I. Image taken in Detroit, Michigan, 1955 and featured in Life Magazine

Controversies

Although Poles held the Blue Army in high regard for its successful effort in stopping the Bolshevik advance into Central Europe, and securing Poland's unstable eastern border, many ethnic Ukrainians and Jews objected to its conduct during the war.[9] After their arrival in the east, Haller's troops engaged in hostile acts against the local Ukrainian and Jewish populations.[10] In Częstochowa on 27 May 1919, a soldier by the name of Stanislaw Dziadecki (who served in a rifle division), was shot and wounded while on patrol, in an apparent sniper attack; a local Jewish tailor, who sympathized with the Bolshevik cause was suspected of committing the attack.[11] In response, Haller's troops aided by local Polish civilians conducted a three hour assault on the town's Jewish quarter that left approximately 5 Jews dead and 45 wounded.[12] As the army traveled further east, Haller's troops as a way to exact retribution; looted Jewish houses, pushed local Jews off moving trains, and with their bayonets cut off the beards of Orthodox Jews.[13]

Haller's army along with the Poznań regiments, launched attacks against Jewish towns in Sambir, the area around Lviv, and Grodek Jagiellonski, where local Jewish committees actively mobilized able-bodied men to fight in the Ukrainian Galician Army, and Jewish youth served as scouts for the Ukrainian military.[14] Most of the attacks that were carried out against local civilian populations that did occur, were done by army's units made up of Polish-American volunteers; where many of the troops who (rightly or wrongly) targeted local Ukrainian and Jewish populations, assumed that the civilians were collaborating with the enemy; either the Ukrainian Galician Army, or Bolshevik Russia.[15] But, as was the case; many of the civilians targeted were not hostile to the Polish military in any way.[16] It is likely, that due to a cultural shock of finding themselves confronted by a multitude of unfamiliar ethnic, political, and religious groups that inhabited Western Ukraine led to a feeling of vulnerability, that in turn provoked the uncontrolled violent outbursts.[17] In an effort to curb the abuses, General Józef Haller himself issued a proclamation demanding that his soldiers stop cutting off beards of Orthodox Jews,[18] Also, in due course; individual soldiers involved in confirmed acts of antisemitism did receive punishment for their abusive actions.

Despite examples of antisemitic behavior exhibited by some troops within the Blue Army,[13][19][20] many Polish Jews enlisted and fought within its ranks. Some even received a commission and took up leadership positions. Jews serving in the Blue Army's 43rd Regiment of Eastern Frontier Riflemen were listed as combat fatalities, and historian Edward Goldstein has identified approximately five percent of the unit's battle casualties as having a Jewish background.[20]

From the Ukrainian perspective the army's arrival was a significant factor that that led to the eventual demise of the independent West Ukrainian People's Republic, and its ultimate incorporation into the new Second Polish Republic, thus crushing the local Ukrainian population's aspiration of an independent state of their own.[citation needed]

Order of battle

  • I Polish Corps
  • II Polish Corps
  • III Polish Corps
    • 3rd Rifle Division
    • 6th Rifle Division
    • 3rd Heavy Artillery Regiment
  • Independent Units
    • 7th Rifle Division
    • Training Division - cadre
    • 1st Tank Regiment

See also

Bibliography

  • M. B. Biskupski, "Canada and the Creation of a Polish Army, 1914-1918," Polish Review (1999) 44#3 pp 339–380
  • Joseph T. Hapak, "Selective service and Polish Army recruitment during World War I," Journal of American Ethnic History (1991) 10#4 pp 38–60[21]
  • Paul Valasek, Haller's Polish Army in France, Chicago, 2006

References

  1. ^ The Blue Division, Stanislaw I. Nastal, Polish Army Veteran’s Association in America, Cleveland, Ohio 1922 [page needed]
  2. ^ Outline of the Wartime History of the 43rd regiment of the Eastern Frontier Riflemen, Major Stefan Wyczolkowski, Warsaw 1928 [page needed]
  3. ^ Outline of the Wartime History of the 44th Regiment of Eastern Frontier Riflemen, Major Stanislaw Bobrowski, Warsaw 1929 [page needed]
  4. ^ Outline of the Wartime History of the 45th Regiment of Eastern Frontier Infantry Riflemen, Major Jerzy Dabrowski, Warsaw 1928 [page needed]
  5. ^ The Polish Army in France in Light of the Facts, Wincenty Skarzynski, Warsaw 1929 [page needed]
  6. ^ Watt, R. (1979). Bitter Glory: Poland and its fate 1918-1939. New York: Simon and Schuster. [page needed]
  7. ^ Subtelny, op. cit., p. 370
  8. ^ Martin Conway, José Gotovitch. (2001). Europe in exile: European exile communities in Britain, 1940-1945. Berghahn Books pg. 191
  9. ^ Antony Polonsky. (1990). My brother's keeper?: recent Polish debates on the Holocaust. Institute for Polish-Jewish Studies: Oxford, England. pg. 100.
  10. ^ Carole Fink. (2006).Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878-1938. Cambridge University Press, pg. 227
  11. ^ Marija Wakounig (28 November 2012). From Collective Memories to Intercultural Exchanges. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 196. ISBN 978-3-643-90287-0.
  12. ^ Carole Finke. (2006). Defending the Rights of Others The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878–1938. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 230
  13. ^ a b Pavel Korzec. (1993). Polish-Jewish Relations During World War I. In Hostages of modernization: studies on modern antisemitism, 1870-1933/39, Volume 2 Herbert Strauss, Ed. Walter de Gruyter: pp.1034-1035
  14. ^ Alexander Victor Prusin (2005). Nationalizing a Borderland: War, Ethnicity, and Anti-Jewish Violence in East Galicia, 1914-1920. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, pg. 100."
  15. ^ Joanna B. Michlic. (2006). Poland's threatening other: the image of the Jew from 1880 to the present . University of Nebraska Press, pg. 117
  16. ^ Feigue Cieplinski. Poles and Jews: The Quest For Self-Determination 1919-1934. Binghampton Journal of History, University of Binghamptom. "The Polish Army, dressed proudly in blue uniforms, also dubbed “Hallerczy Boys” because of the name of its captain, fought valiantly and enlarged Polish territory. Josef Haller, an Austrian by birth and trained in France, had been allowed to form there the Polish army in exile and transfer it to Poland. However, Haller had also augmented his troops along the way with badly trained volunteers. Either by design or accident of war, the “Hallerczy Boys” had killed Jews not involved in the direct hostilities during these maneuvers; their neutrality was to no avail as many were accused of having sided with either the Russian or the Ukrainians"
  17. ^ Cite error: The named reference Eichenberg was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  18. ^ American Jewish Committee.(1920). American Jewish year book, Volume 22 . Jewish Publication Society of America pg. 250
  19. ^ Heiko Haumann. (2002). A history of East European Jews Central European University Press, pg. 215
  20. ^ a b Goldstein, Edward. Jews in Haller's Army. The Galitzianer, the quarterly journal of Gesher Galicia, May 2002. Goldstein states: "Based on the evidence I have considered I conclude that: (1) individual Hallerczyki and probably units of Haller’s Army committed anti-Semitic atrocities while in Poland, and (2) thousands of Jews served in Haller’s Army. Cite error: The named reference "Goldstein" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  21. ^ Stanley R. Pliska, "The 'Polish-American Army' 1917-1921," The Polish Review (1965) 10#1 pp 46-59.

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