Gazikumukh Shamkhalate

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 217.206.228.6 (talk) at 16:30, 11 July 2012 (→‎Islamic Kumukh in 11th-12th ce). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Kazikumukh Shamkhalate
11th ce–17th ce
CapitalKazi-Kumukh
Religion
Islam
GovernmentConstitutional monarchy
Shamkhal 
History 
• Established
11th ce
• Disestablished
17th ce

Kazikumukh Shamkhalate — Lak state that existed on the territory of present-day Dagestan in 11th-17th centuries. The capital of Shamkhalate was Kazi-Kumukh. In 16th century Shamkhalate consisted of territories of northern Azerbaijan, Dagestan and part of Chechnya.

Ruler shamkhal in 8th ce

In the 8th century the Arab caliphate persistently strive to gain a foothold in Dagestan for political hegemony in the Eastern Caucasus. In 733 Arabs establish their rule in Kumukh.[1][2] The ruler of Kumukh is named "shamkhal".[3][4][5][6][7] In 777 the construction of cathedral mosque in Kumukh was completed, where an Islamic party appeared.[8] In 797 Khazars carried out an invasion of Dagestan.[9][10]

In the 8th ce in the mountainous Dagestan there were such principalities as: Tabasaran, Tsakhur, Kumukh, Khunzakh, and Kaitag. [11][12][13][14] In the 9th century mountainous Dagestan liberates itself from the authority of Arab caliphate. In the 10th century Kumukh is named by Arab historians as "Al-Lak and Gumik".[15][16]

Islamic Kumukh in 11th-12th ce

At the end of 11th century shamkhals make Islam a state religion in Kumukh. Kumukh becomes the primary stronghold of Islam in Lakia where Amir Kalantar, leader of Islamic warriors and a missionary who arrived here from Mecca in 11th ce, was buried.[17][18] Shamkhal, the feudal ruler of Kumukh, having military force of Islamic warriors, pursues an active policy of spreading Islam in Dagestan, that sometimes were assisted by Firaburz I (1063–1096), the ruler of Shirvan. Consequently Kumukh gets an honoured prefix of "Gazi".[3]

A Muslim kingdom with the capital in Kazi-Kumukh, that was formed on the advent of 11th-12th centuries, begins to play an important role in spiritual and political life of Dagestan.[19][20] Along with Kazikumukh Shamkhalate there appeared a number of other political formations in Dagestan such as Tabasaran Maisumate, Tsakhur, Avar Nutsalate, and Kaitag Utsmiate.[21][22][23]

Through Kumukh passed one of the branches of the northern Silk Road, where merchants from Bukhara, Istanbul and Hindustan arrived. The peoples of Dagestan get affiliated with the most developed in the medieval world Islamic civilization.

Tataro-Mongol invasions in 13th-14th ce

In 1239 Tataro-Mongols invaded Dagestan.[24] Kurbiev M. writes that after the subjugation of Derbent and Tarki, Tataro-Mongols headed to capture Kumukh. The first fight with Tataro-Mongols happened on approaches to Agul village of Richa, where the army of shamkhal had taken defensive positions. After 25 days of fights in Richa, shamkhal retreated to his fortress. Tataro-Mongols approached the fortress of Kazi-Kumukh and began a siege using machines and catapults. The siege of Kazi-Kumukh lasted over six months.

In 1240 on April 8, an ancient religious and political center Kumukh, was captured and destroyed. In ancient times on top of the hills in Kumukh were several fortresses known as Khannal-kala, Burgai-kala and Chikkul-kala, that were adjoined by residential neighbourhoods. The fortress of Chikkul was captured last. For many years Kumukh and surrounding it villages remained in ruins.

According to М. Kurbiev there was a fortress not far from Kumukh built in the early 4th ce by a Lak king. Ruins of this fortress are easily looked over today: "These are the bare stone-walls of three meters wide, on which a wagon can pass freely, bits and pieces of three round and enormous in form foundations of towers that are in the upper northern part of the ancient settlement. Towers probably were symmetric, one large in the middle and two little on each side, built into a wall". On the mountain "khatti-baku", Mongols destroyed a unique monument of medieval culture — chapel of the Lak ruler built in the 7th century.[25]

Ismey-Haji Guseinov writes: "In spring of 1240 Bugdei, one of warlords of Batu Khan, approaches Kumukh and after a fierce resistance of defenders of the fortress takes the capital of Shamkhalate. However, Mongols had not managed then to establish themselves in Lakia as well as in other regions in the mountains of Dagestan".[26] Shamkhalate restores its might and becomes the strongest in Northern Caucasus. In 1302 a "Persian shah" of Iran , who sent gifts to shamkhal, was none other than the descendant of Genghis Khan, Ghazan Khan (1295–1304). Records of Ali Kayaev show that by the early 14th century in Kazi-Kumukh along there were 14 mosques.

In 1395 taking over the lowlands of northern Dagestan, Tamerlane moved to Kaitag. Shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh undertook few campaigns against Tamerlane. In one of them "shamkhal of Kazi-Kumuk and Avhar" with an army of 3000 persons attacked Tamerlane in the neighborhood of Akusha-Dargo.[27] Nizameddin Shami reported that "shamkhal of Kazi-Kumuk had a custom to accomplish each month a military campaign against the unbelievers" that Tamerlane wanted to put to his use.[28] Nizameddin Shami mentions "Kazi-Kumuk" as an ally of the Golden Horde.[29]

In 1396 Tamerlane returned to Dagestan and went against shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh. After several months of siege and battles, Tamerlane took fortresses of Kuli and Tayus. Sharafuddin Yezdi, Tamerlane's court historian, writes: "Heavy resistance is overcome, fortresses captured, inhabitants defeated, shamkhal is killed himself". Historians of Tamerlane do not inform about the capture of Kazi-Kumukh. Kammaev S. K. writes: "The mightiest foreign invaders waged wars on Kumukh and here were the fierce battles with them".[30]

Lak rulers concluded a treaty with Tamerlan to carry on "a holy war against the unbelievers" as they did before. Tamerlane richly endowed the feudal apex of Laks ("emirs, nobles, grandees"). In this connection the ruler of Kazi-Kumukh strengthened his influence in the region. Shikhsaidov A. relates this time to the holy war that shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh waged on "unbelievers" in neighbouring lands.[31] Shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh gets the title "Wali of Dagestan".

Strengthening of Shamkhalate in 15th-16th ce

In 15th century shamkhals of Lakia emerge as leaders of Islamization process in Dagestan. In 1430 Gazi-Gumuk was an important center of Muslim education in Dagestan. There arrived in Kazi-Kumukh a scholar of Islamic sciences, Ahmad bin Ibrahim bin Muhammad al-Gazi-Gumuki ad-Dagestani al-Hasani al-Shafiyi, died in 1450. He was a religious figure, mudarris, scientist and a preacher of Islam in Dagestan. Before moving to Kazi-Kumukh he taught at the university of Al-Azhar in Cairo and then, by the order of the ruler of Egypt he arrived in Kazi-Kumukh. From December 1434 Ahmad al-Yemeni lived in Kazi-Kumukh. Ahmad al-Yemeni played a noticeable role in political and spiritual life of Kazikumukh Shamkhalate. Kazi-Kumukh becomes one of the centers of Islamic jurisprudence in Caucasus.[32] On the "Yemeni cemetery" preachers of Islam from Yemen were buried.[33]

In the medieval Dagestan there were established several centers of Islamic sciences such as: Gazi-Kumukh, Derbent, Akhty, Tsakhur, Akusha, Sogratl, Khunzakh, Andirey, Yarag and Bashly.

There were several states in Dagestan — Tabasaran Maisumate, Avar Nutsalate, Kaitag Utsmiate, Derbent, and Kazikumukh Shamkhalate which consisted of several states of the southern and northern Dagestan such as: Kazi-Kumukh, Agul, Kura, Rutul, Tsakhur, Andalan, Andi, Tarki, Bujnak, Andirey and Tumen.[34][35][36]

Intrusion of Persians

In the first half of 15th century Safavid Persia enters the political arena of Caucasus. The support of Safavids became Turkic nomadic tribes that got the nickname of Qizilbashes – red heads.

In 1447 Shaykh Junayd, the leader of Qizilbashes, ascends on the throne of Persia. Junayd decided to conquer Shirvan and Dagestan. The ruler of Shirvan Khalilullah appealed to shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh for help. In 1456 on the banks of river Samur a battle took place between the troops of Junayd and the united forces of shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh. The Persian army was defeated. Junayd was killed himself.

In 1456 the proceeding Safaviyya leader Shaykh Haydar took Derbent and began to carry out raids on the off-shore districts of Shamkhalate. In 1488 in Tabasaran during a bloody battle, shah Haydar sustained defeat.

Expansion of territory

In 15th century shamkhals ("padishah al-gumuki" in local sources, "shevkalsky tsar" in Russian) completed the religious enlightenment of Dagestan and with the support of utsmi of Kaitag, maisum of Tabasaran and nutsal of Khunzakh, directed the energy of highlanders to external wars. Raids on "unbelievers" of Georgia and Cherkessia become regular. According to Turkish sources the army of shamkhal in this period consisted of about 100 thousand man.[37] In a "Testament" of Andunik-nutsal (1485), who estimating the military power of feudal rulers of Dagestan wrote: "100 thousand men in the army of Padishah al-Gumuki".[38]

In this period Kazikumukh Shamkhalate becomes the largest state of the Caucasus, spreading beyond Terek river in the north, and in the south reaching Shabran. Laduev U. writes that after embracing Islam "Chechens consented to paying tribute to shamkhal named as Wali of Dagestan". Also "Chechnya is the possession of shamkhal". Some princes of Kabarda were dependent on shamkhal. Academician V. Barthold writes: "Gazi-Gumuk Shamkhalate was spreading its political domination from its mountainous country in the north-eastern direction up to the coastal regions in 11th-16th centuries".[39] Historian Gadjiev V. writes: "Shamkhalate in the period of its political domination became a very large state on the map of medieval Caucasus".[40]

In 1547 the ruler of Shirvan Alqas-Mirza allied with shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh and heaved up a revolt against Safavids, but retreated to Kazi-Kumukh.[41] In 1549 in Shirvan a new revolt against Safavids took place headed by Burhan-Mirza, who too retreated to Kazi-Kumukh. Later shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh and the ruler of Shirvan began competing for the hegemony in the northern Azerbaijan. King of Kakhetia Levan, an ally and kinsman of shamkhal, also feuded with Shirvan.

In 16th century Ottoman Empire begins to get involved in the affairs of Caucasus. Wars between Turkey and Safavid Persia begin. The rulers of both countries desired to ally with shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh, as he had a huge political influence in the Caucasus. King of Kakheti Levan became a mediator between the shah and shamkhal, promoting the convergence of the latter. Ismey-Haji Guseinov writes: "Between Safavid shah and shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh a political and military alliance was made which was strengthened by a marriage between shah Tahmasp I and the daughter of shamkhal.[26]

Era of prosperity

In the 15th-16th centuries the might of shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh reaches its peak.[42] The lands of shamkhal cover northern Azerbadzhan, Dagestan and Chechnya. In the times of war, shamkhal was the leader of the army. Great powers of that time as Russia, Ottoman Empire and Sefevid Persia consider shamkhal a force to reckon with. The house of shamkhals of Kazi-Kumukh was one of the most ancient ruling dynasties in Dagestan that had intermarriages which the princes of Kabardino-Balkaria, rulers of Persia, Kakheti and Crimea.[43]

The city of Tarki becomes a strategic point of Caspian Sea passage that permitted to control the movement of troops and merchant caravans which brought large revenues to the treasury. Important root of caravan trade in Dagestan was the Caspian, leading from Derbent to Tarki and through Andirey to Astrakhan, also via the North Caucasus to Kabarda and further to the Crimean and the Ottoman territories. Caravans also traveled through the central mountainous Dagestan - from Shaki to Kazi-Kumukh, Avaria and then to Chechnya. Dagestani merchants actively involved themselves in transit trade.[44] In commercial transactions gold and silver money of neighboring states were used.[45] A common economic zone emerged with neighbouring regions. Unknown in other regions of Caucasus, every village specialized in a certain craft. Almost every village was a workshop organization, supplying the needs of common internal and external market. The second name of Kazi-Kumukh becomes a "large market" where a fair every Thursday was conducted.

Shamkhals carry out frequent trips from Kazi-Kumukh to their winter residence in Bujnak city and later in Tarki. Ali Kayaev writes about shamkhals that "their strong branch migrated from Kazi-Kumukh to the lowlands" of Dagestan.[46]

Besides Kazi-Kumukh there were many other branches of extended shamkhal family that ruled most of Dagestan, like branches of Bujnak, Tarki, Andirey, and Andi. Kura was the stronghold of shamkhal in southern Dagestan. In the course of islamization, shamkhals became rulers of the conquered lands. As Marshaev writes: "On subordinated territories shamkhals settled their sons on beneficiary rights, many of whom eventually became hereditary landlords".[47]

The title "shamkhal" in the first half of the 16th century was passed by seniority.[48] Turkish historian Mehmet Efendi writes about the election of shamkhal that members of the house of shamkhal "following the ancient custom of their ancestors depart for Kazi-Kumukh. Here in the gathering of princes the election of a new shamkhal takes place".[49] Also there was elected a "krim-shamkhal", meaning the vice-shamkhal, derived from Lak "kiriw-shamkhal".[50][51]

Relations with Russia

In 1556 diplomatic relations with the Moscow state were set. The peaceful embassy of shamkhal brought Ivan the Terrible a number of rich gifts, one of which was extraordinary: an elephant, not seen up to that time in Moscow.[52]

In 1557 prince Temruk Idarov of Kabarda appealed to Ivan the Terrible with a request to protect him against the raids of shamkhal. Ivan the Terrible sent his general Cheremisov, by sea from Astrakhan, against shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh. Cheremisov landed in Tarki, defeated the detachment of shamkhal, took over Tarki but decided not to remain there, fearing the arrival of shamkhal forces from Kazi-Kumukh.[53] Russia won over Shikhmurza Okotsky, who rendered considerable services to prince Temruk, the opponent of shamkhal. Russians capturing Kazan and Astrakhan, were moving to Caucasus.[54]

In 1566 Matlov, one of the princes of Kabarda, asked Ivan the Terrible to put a fortress on Sunzha River. In 1567 trying to prevent Russians to build their stronghold, at the confluence of Sunzha and Terek, Budai-shamkhal and later his brother Surkhay were killed on the battlefield, as evidenced by their tombstones at the cemetery of shamkhals in Kazi-Kumukh.[55]

In 1569 prince Chopan, son of Budai-shamkhal, is crowned in Kazi-Kumukh as shamkhal. The ceremony of coronation was of Iranian standard: girding with a sword and putting a crown on the head. Chopan-shamkhal became the famous ruler of Dagestan. Territory of Chopan-shamkhal in the north extended beyond Terek river and adjoined the Khanate of Astrakhan. In the west his territory included part of Chechnya. In the south, territories of Chopan-shamkhal extended "up to Shemakha itself" according to I. Gerber.[56][57] The name of shamkhal must be Persian, known as "Juvan". The Shamkhalate state was managed according to Islamic laws. Judiciary belonged to Qadies. Constabulary functions were executed by "Nukers". Government policy was enacted by Divan assembly.

In 1570 Chopan-shamkhal goes with his troops to capture Astrakhan. This expedition was undertaken jointly with Turks and Crimeans. The siege of Astrakhan was not successful and troops retreated to Azov. Chopan-shamkhal demolished the Russian fortress on Sunja river, intruded in Kabarda and took part in a battle against the army of ally of Tsar Ivan IV on the side of the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey.[58]

In 1571 Crimean Devlet Girey-khan took Moscow and categorically demanded to demolish a fortress that was not allowing Muslims to set forth for Haj and carry on trade.[59] The fortress on Terek erected for protecting Kabarda and her ruler Temruk from shamkhal was demolished. However in spite of demolishing the fortress, advancement of Russians to Caucasus by the end of 1580th recommenced.

Relations with Persia

In Persia in the court of the shah, the ruler of Dagestan had an honorable place next to the throne of the shah. Shamkhal was among the noblest and strongest rulers and allies of the shah. According to A. Kayaev influence of Chopan-shamkhal in Caucasus was great and "he allowed himself to interfere in matters of inheritance of Persian throne". Sister of Chopan-shamkhal was married to shah Tahmasp I (1514–1576). After the death of Tahmasp I in 1576 Haydar Mirza, Tahmasp's son by a Georgian mother, was elected on a Sefevid throne. In view of this Chopan-shamkhal led his troops together with other supporters to the capital Tabriz. Haydar was removed and Ismail was elected as shah.

In 1577 shah Ismail II was killed in a coup. Power in Persia was seized by Qizilbashes who were hostile to Sunni Caucasus. In the 16th century Qizilbashes overmastering all of Iran began to raid Sunni Shirvan, which wasn’t dangerous for Dagestan. Chopan-shamkhal jointly with his brother Tujalav-Bek, Gazi-Salih of Tabasaran, and in alliance with the Turkish army undertook a military campaign against Qizilbashes, who were completely defeated and retreated out of Shirvan.

Relations with Turkey

After the victory over Qizilbashes in Shirvan, Chopan-shamkhal set friendly relationships with Turkey, carried out a visit there and was met in Eastern Anatolia with honours shown to the dignitaries of states. In reward for taking part in war against the Qizilbashes, Chopan-shamkhal was given many gifts, including banners embroidered in gold, sabre and war-horse with complete equipment. Ibrahim Pechevi reports that "Osman-pasha married the daughter of Tujalav-Bek, brother of Chopan-shamkhal". Chopan-shamkhal pledged to protect Shirvan. Yakob Raynes writes: "All Caucasus had respect for him".[60]

In 1574 Chopan-shamkhal died in Bujnak. Bakikhanov A. K. writes: "Situation in Dagestan was dim. Chopan-shamkhal who possessed all the lands from the borders of Kaitag, Kura, Avaria, Cherkesia and Terek river up to the Caspian Sea, died in Bujnak. His sons divided all the lands between themselves".[61][62]

Shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh conducted a complicated foreign policy. The end of 70th was marked by a war between Dagestan and Turkey. Sultan Murad III resumed military operations against the Persians. Chopan-shamkhal considered the establishment of Turkey in Shemakha to be a threat to his state. In the beginning shamkhal rendered support to Turkey against Persia, but later refused to participate in wars with Persia.

In 1578 Caucasus was invaded by 200 thousand army of Mustafa-pasha. The Turks capturing Shemakha began to make military expeditions into the mountains of Dagestan. In 1582 a detachment of Jafar-pasha went from Derbent to Gazi-Kumukh. "Gazi-Kumukh was subjected by Turks to a terrible devastation". These predatory campaigns raised the population of Dagestani villages in arms against the Turkish Janissaries.

Decline of Shamkhalate in 17th ce

In 1588 Georgian ambassadors Kaplan and Hurset informed Russian tsar about the raids of shamkhal and asked for protection. Georgian king Alexander gave Moscow all the information about shamkhal's army and suggested the route: Tumen, Tarki, Kazanish, Kazi-Kumukh and Tsakhur.[63] In 1588 Russians captured Tumen principality in northern Dagestan.[64] Inhabitants of Tumen paid tribute to shamkhal.

Nevertheless, shamkhal's army was victorious in wars with the Moscow state. Attacks of 1589 and 1594 were repelled. Georgia subsequently refuses to fight against shamkhal.[65] In 1605 Russian army that occupied lowlands of Dagestan (about 50 000 men, including 8000 shooters of the Moscow garrison), was knocked out from fortresses in Sunzha, Sulak, Tarki and then surrounded and destroyed in Karaman field, 20 kilometres north of Makhachkala. All attempts of tsar Boris Godunov to defeat shamkhal fail.[66]

In line with the Treaty of Istanbul of 1590 between the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia, Dagestan is acknowledged under the protection of Turkish sultan. This point was confirmed by agreements on the division of Caucasus in 1612 and 1619. Shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh was an ally of Turkey. Turkish sultan used to name shamkhal as padishah of Dagestan.

At the beginning of 17th century military power of Turkey diminishes in Caucasus, which results in regional domination of Persia. Shah Abbas I of Persia began the conquest of Caucasus, occupied Derbent and put his deputy there. Aggression of Qizilbashes recommences. According to Iskander Munshi, shah Abbas practiced mass executions of sunnies in Azerbaijan, and violently implanted Shia Islam in occupied territories.[67]

In 1615 shah Abbas decided to take advantage of feudal war that flamed up in Kazikumukh Shamkhalate. Sultan-Mahmud of Andirey disputed his hereditary rights with Girey of Tarki. The feudals sought support from outside. Sultan-Mahmud adhered to pro-Turkish and Giray of Tarki to a pro-Iranian and Russian orientation. All attempts of Andia-shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh to persuade Girey to give up his plans fell flat. Shah Abbas married the sister of Girey and decided to send troops to Dagestan against his opposition. However a revolt that took place in Georgia in 1615 September 15, prevented it. In 1617 the army of shah Abbas I came to Kakheti trampling everything on its path and turning the villages into ashes.[68] In 1619 after the death of Girey, Eldar, brother of Girey, becomes the ruler of Tarki principality. Shah Abbas provoked Eldar to a war with Sultan-Mahmud and Andia-shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh.

In 1623 after the death of Andia-shamkhal, a fight for throne of Shamkhalate between the rulers began again. On convention it was decided that the heir of Andia-shamkhal will be Eldar, and the heir of vice-shamkhal (next shamkhal), will be Aidemir, son of Sultan-Mahmud. In 1623 Eldar becomes shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh. Coronation and large banquets took place in Kazi-Kumukh. In 1635 Eldar-shamkhal died. Aidemir, son of Sultan-Mahmud, becomes shamkhal. Aidemir travelled to Kazi-Kumukh, "where according to their customs shamkhal is crowned", gave people horses, bulls and sheep as gifts. He was given allegiance by all representatives of feudal class in Kazi-Kumukh, except for the descendents of Eldar-shamkhal, settled in Tarki.[69] The sons of Eldar-shamkhal, being displeased at the election of Aidemir, appealed to Persian shah to support them. In 1640 Aidemir-shamkhal died. Next shamkhal becomes Surkhay.[70]

Ali Kayaev reports that in the middle of 17th century a fight for the throne of Shamkhalate between the sons of Chopan-shamkhal "lasted for 30 years. Great number of people died there". Feudal wars led to the formation of independent states.

In 1642 Surkhay-shamkhal (1640–1667) moved his capital from Kazi-Kumukh to Tarki. In Kazi-Kumukh "Laks considered it an insult to the ancient capital".[71] To rule Kazi-Kumukh, Laks elect Alibek II, who establishes an independent Khanate of Kazi-Kumukh. Subsequently, the title "shamkhal" passes to the nobles of shamkhal family in Tarki, where an independent Shamkhalate of Tarki was formed. Surkhay-shamkhal breaking away from Kazi-Kumukh lost his political power in most of Dagestan.[72]

References

  1. ^ "After Abu Muslim fortified Derbend in the best possible way, he carried out a campaign on Kumuk [Kumukh]. Beks [nobles] of Kumuk led battles and bloody fights, but in the end the rulers of Kumuk were defeated, many infidels died. After capturing Kumuk, those who became Muslims were left with their property, and those who refused to accept Islam, were slaughtered and plundered. At the top part of the city [of Kumuk] a cathedral mosque was constructed. In other parts [of the city] mosques were built [too].Then [Abu Muslim] went on to invade Kaitag. In the battles he killed a valiant ruler of Kaitag. After the capture of Kaitag he converted most of its population to Islam and appointed annual kharaj [...]. From there [Abu Muslim] went to Tabarsaran".
  2. ^ А. Р. Шихсаидов, Т. М. Айтберов, Г. М.-Р. Оразаев. «Дербенд-наме» // «Дагестанские исторические сочинения». — М. Наука. 1993.
  3. ^ a b Исмей-Гаджи Гусейнов. Лаки в истории Дагестана (VI—XX века). Кавказский Узел / Энциклопедия.
  4. ^ The inhabitants of Kumukh embraced Islam during the campaigns of Abu Muslim (733) "who appointed with him [shakhbal] a kadi [religious scholar] to teach the people the rites of the new faith". Abu Muslim "ordered [shakhbal, maisum and utsmi] that in the event of Khazar envasion to take defence by united forces and not to allow Khazar traders approach Derbent [...] After all these arrangements of Abu Muslim, caliph Hisham himself arrived in Derbent" (См. А. К. Бакиханов. Гюлистан и Ирам. Период второй 644-1258 гг.).
  5. ^ According to historians Barthold V. V. and M. A. Polievktov, the title "shamkhal" comes from the name of the ruler shakhbal appointed by Arabs in Kumukh. Полиевктов М. А. Из истории северокавказских феодалов ХVII века. «Сб. статей академику Н. Я. Марру». — М. — Л. 1935. С. 746.
  6. ^ As Shikhsaidov writes: "In 8th CE shamkhal became a ruler" in Lakia. (А. Р. Шихсаидов. Ислам в средневековом Дагестане (VII—XV вв.). — Махачкала, 1969, с. 97—98.).
  7. ^ Shakhbal (shamkhal) — title of the ruler of Kumukh. According to Derbent-neme, Muslim, brother of Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, commander of the Arab forces in Dagestan, capturing Kumukh appointed shakhbal as its governor. (См. Дербенд-наме. с. 90—91, 101, 103.). In "Tarih-Dagistan", shamkhal — the name of the first appointee of Arabs in Kumukh, in the mountainous Dagestan.
  8. ^ On the inner wall of the mosque in Kumukh there remained an inscription: "In 160 (meaning Islamic calendar) they built this mosque for worshiping Allah Almighty", (См. Рамазан Маршаев, Бута Бутаев. История лакцев. 1991.).
  9. ^ As Bakikhanov writes: "In 797 Khazars in huge hordes invaded territories of Transcaucasia, captured Dagestan, Derbent and Shirvan. According to the book of Awliya Chelebi, around 140 thousand Muslims died at that time. Previously there had never happened such a misfortune. As for the decedents of Shakhbal, Khamza and Maisum, appointed by Abu Muslim as rulers of mentioned principalities nothing is known. Dagestani tribes that embraced Islam once again returned to polytheism. There appeared everywhere self-named rulers" (А. К. Бакиханов. Гюлистан и Ирам. Период второй 644-1258.).
  10. ^ Hasan-Efendi Alkadari does not give a dramatic picture of the Khazar invasion in 180 (797), and does not consider that Khazars conquered Dagestan: "Khazars once capturing Dagestan, Derbent, and even Shirvan, would have beaten Muslims and turn them into apostates. In these regions they would have destroyed all the mosques and minarets built here by Muslims previously, just as the Arabs once coming here completely destroyed previously located here chapels of different religions and have left no traces of them. In addition, they would have removed the governors such as shamkhal, utsmi, and maisum appointed by Abu Muslim [Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik] here, and from qadis [religious scholars] no one would have been left. Meanwhile, there still remain in various places the mosques and minarets built in the era of Abu Muslim", (Hasan-Efendi Alkadari. Asari Dagestan).
  11. ^ Очерки истории Дагестана. — Махачкала: Даггиз. 1957. Т. 1. С. 51.
  12. ^ Halifa ibn Hayyat informs about the capture "Gumik" and "Khumzakh" by Marwan.
  13. ^ Бейлис В. М. Сообщения Халифы ибн Хаййата ал-Усфури об арабо-хазарских войнах в VII — первой половине VIII в. // Древнейшие государства Восточной Европы. 1998. М.,2000. С. 43.
  14. ^ Гасанов М. Р. Дагестан и народы Кавказа в V—XV веках (некоторые вопросы этнической общности расселения и взаимоотношений). — Махачкала, 2008.
  15. ^ Ибн Рустэ. Из книги драгоценных камней. (Пер. Караулова Н. А.) — Тифлис. 1903, с. 49; Баладзори. Книга завоеваний стран. — Баку. 1927. С. 7; Абу Мухаммад ибн А'сам ал-Куфи. Книга завоеваний. Баку. 1981.
  16. ^ Russian authors of translation from Arabic give the form "Alal and Gumik" which can also naturally be read as "Al-Lal and Gumik" given the fact that the sign of doubling the letter "tashdid" in Arabic literature is not assigned that has to do with the Arabic definite article "Al" in this case. Arabic letter "l" at the end of the word is quite identical to letter "k" at the end of the word except for a small sign above the letter "k" which apparently was missed. For example, Arabic letters "t" and "z" differ only by a small dot on top. Thus, "Alal and Gumik" can undoubtedly be identified as "Al-Lak and Gumik". In particular, historian Hasan Efendi Alkadari (1887) writes: "city of Kumukh [...] In some Arabic sources this city is named Lak. [...] In some Turkic sources it is named Kumuk".
  17. ^ "The troops of Kalantar moved out of Mecca and Medina". Али Каяев. Материалы по истории лаков. Рук. фонд. ИИЯЛ, д. 1642. Л. 263. Перевод с араб. А. Р. Шихсаидова.
  18. ^ Ali Kayaev wrote that in 500 AH (1006-1007) there came to Caucasus a significant number gazies [Islamic worriers], headed by Gazi Amir-Kalantar. Ali Kayaev discovered in Kumukh the grave of Kalantar with the inscription: "This is the grave of Kalantar, protector of religion, the preacher of Islam". Али Каяев. Указ. соч. — Л. 263–264.
  19. ^ Б. Г. Алиев, М. С. Умаханов. Дагестан в XV–XVI вв. (Вопросы исторической географии) / ИИАЭ ДНЦ РАН. Махачкала, 2004. С. 30-63.
  20. ^ Мухаммад Рафи. Тарих Дагестан. // Дагестанские исторические сочинения. А. Р. Шихсаидов, Т. М. Айтберов, Г. М.-Р. Оразаев. — М. Наука. 1993. Kumukh of Lak people is located in the central part of mountainous Dagestan and in the beginning of 12th CE becomes a political centre of mountainous peoples. Dagestan historically represented itself as a federation of several mountainous principalities.
  21. ^ P. M. Магомедов. Дагестан — Исторические этюды. Махачкала, Дагкнигоиздат, 1971, С.22-23.
  22. ^ The first Islamic center in the lands of Kaitag was "Kala-Koreish", built by the Arabs in the VIII century. Dargin village of Urkarakh embraced Islam in the X-XI centuries (См. Дагестанская правда. Д. Р. Омаров, глава МО «Дахадаевский район». Народы Дагестана. № 4/ 2009).
  23. ^ Some of the events in 11th-13th centuries: 1032 — Rus carries out a raid on Baku. 1040 — Georgian army invades Northern Azerbaijan. 1054 — Azerbaijan comes under Seljuk rule. 1123 — combined army of Georgians and Shirvanians defeat the Seljuks in the Battle of Shamakhi. 1161 — King George III of Georgia took possession of Ganja. 1220 — the first invasion of Azerbaijan by the Mongols. Maraga, Ardabil, Baylakan and Shemakha destroyed. 1231-1239 — the conquest of Azerbaijan by Mongols. Destruction of Ganja and Shamkhor.
  24. ^ М. Магомедов. Походы монголо-татар в горный Дагестан. — Махачкала, 2005
  25. ^ М. Курбиев. Монголы в Лакии. РИА Дагеста, 04.01.2009.
  26. ^ a b См. Исмей-Гаджи Гусейнов. Указ. соч.
  27. ^ Тизенгаузен В. Г. Сборник. Т. 1. СПб., 1884. С. 233.
  28. ^ Шами Низамеддин. Зафер Наме. — Баку, 1992.
  29. ^ Шами Низамеддин. Зафер-наме. Баку, Елм. 1992, с. 16.
  30. ^ С. К. Каммаев. Легендарная Лакия: Краткий энциклопедический справочник о Лакии и лакцах. Т.1 — Махачкала: Тип. ДНЦ РАН, 2007.
  31. ^ А. Р. Шихсаидов. Распространение ислама в Дагестане (VII—XV вв.). — Махачкала, I960.
  32. ^ А. К. Аликберов. Эпоха классического ислама на Кавказе. ст.162-163.
  33. ^ Саидов М. С. Сообщение на секторе о возникновении письменности у даргинцев. С. 122–123.
  34. ^ In the chronicle of Mohammed Rafi "Tarikh Dagistan" the state of Zakhur [Tsakhur] is mentioned as subordinate to shamkhal as well, not later than the beginning of the 16th century.
  35. ^ "Based on the primary sources it can be stated that the founder of the dynasty of Sultans of Elisu [Tsakhur] was Adi Kurkulu-bek. Of the 35 firmans issued by the Safavid court in the name of Tsakhur rulers, subsequently Elisu Sultans, the earliest dates from 1562".
  36. ^ Ягуб Махмудлу, А. Н. Мустафаев, М.Н. Мирзоев, А. М. Мюридов, О. В. Мустафиню. Северо-западный Азербайджан: Илисуйское султанство. Баку, 1999.
  37. ^ Mehmet Efendi, a Turkic chronicler, informs that: "Lezgins and all the other tribes in their entirety are subordinate to shamkhals. When their security is threatened, under the banner of shamkhal there gathers one hundred thousand army of horsemen and footmen. It's a known fact".
  38. ^ А. Р. Шихсаидов. Завещание Андуник-нуцала. — Махачкала, 1998.
  39. ^ В. В. Бартольд. Сочинения. — Москва, 1963.
  40. ^ Ильяс Каяев. Казикумухское Шамхальство XV—XVI вв. Настоящее Время. № 38. 26 сен. 2008.
  41. ^ А. К. Бакиханов. Указ. раб. С. 80.
  42. ^ Р. Маршаев, Б. Бутаев. История лакцев. Махачкала 1992. / Возвышение государства Казикумухских шамхалов
  43. ^ См. Б. Г. Алиев, М. С. Умаханов. Указ. соч.
  44. ^ См. Сб. докум. Русско-дагестанские отношения в ХVII перв. четв. ХVIII вв. // Махачкала, 1957. Составитель Маршаев Р. Г.
  45. ^ Пахомов Е. А. Монетные клады Азербайджана и других республик Кавказа. Труды ИЯЛ АН Азерб. ССР, Вып. II. — Баку, 1944.
  46. ^ См. Али Каяев. Настоящее Время. № 47. Указ. соч.
  47. ^ См. Р. Г. Маршаев. Указ. соч.
  48. ^ Р. Г. Маршаев. О термине «шамхал» и резиденции шамхалов. — Махачкала, 1959. С. 163—173
  49. ^ К. М. Алиев. Таргу-наме. — Махачкала, 2001.
  50. ^ Али Каяев. Настоящее Время. № 47, 4 декабря. 2009.
  51. ^ Inscriptions from cemetery in Kazi-Kumukh inform that in 1553, prince Muhammad was killed in winter "in a battle with unbelievers of Cherkessia". "This is the grave of Budai-shamkhal, son of Umal Muhammad-shamkhal". (Али Каяев. Материалы по истории лаков. Рук. фонд. ИИЯЛ, д. 1642. С. 256.). Umal Muhammad was the father of two brothers — Surkhay and Budai. Ayetberov notices that the descendants of Surkhay we see only in lowlands of Dagestan (Ildar-shamkhal, Girey of Tarki and others) and the descendants of Budai only in Kazi-Kumukh. It is considered in the historiography of Dagestan that shamkhals migrated to the lowlands from Kazi-Kumukh not later than the 16th century. In the 17th century shamkhals were still buried in Kazi-Kumukh in the cemetery of shamkhals. Last grave belongs to Surkhay-shamkhal and dates back to 1641. Lavrov wrote that "our inding of shamkhal cemetery in Kumukh proved that until the 17th century the capital of this largest feudal state of Dagestan [Shamkhalate] was not Tarki but Kumukh, located relatively close to Tsakhur people". (Лавров Л. И. Из эпиграфических находок Дагестанской экспедиции // Сборник музея антропологии и этнографии. Л., 1957. Т. XVIII.).
  52. ^ С. А. Белокуров. Сношения России с Кавказом — М., 1888. 4.1. С. 29, 58-60.
  53. ^ ПСРЛ. Т. ХIII. 2-я пол. С. 324, 330.
  54. ^ Р. Г. Маршаев. Казикумухское шамхальство в русско-турецких отношениях во второй половине XVI — начале XVII вв. — М., 1963
  55. ^ In 1567 Budai-shamkhal of Kazi-Kumukh supported Kaitukin in internecine war between the princes of Kabarda. Ismai Haji Huseynov writes: "The Russian fortress on the Sunzha river not only marked the limit of the territorial expansion of Shamkhalate of Gazi-Kumukh that continued unabated from 11th-12th centuries, but also marked the beginning of the end of this largest state in the history of North-Eastern Caucasus". (См. Лаки в истории Дагестана (VI-XX века).
  56. ^ В. Г. Гаджиев. Сочинение И. Г. Гербера «Описание стран и народов между Астраханью и рекою Курою находящихся» как исторический источник по истории народов Кавказа. – М., Наука, 1979.
  57. ^ According to historian V. Gadjiev, Shamkhalate of Gazi-Kumukh was "a unified state of Dagestan" that indicates the academic failure of "a long-standing opinion that the peoples of the country of the mountains never had in history a unified state".
  58. ^ Н. А. Смирнов. Россия и Турция в 16.-17 вв. М., 1946. С. 127
  59. ^ ЦГАДА. Крымские дела. Кн. 13. — Л. 71 об.
  60. ^ Якоб Рейнегс. Всеобщее историко-топографическое описание Кавказа (XVIII в.). 1784 г.
  61. ^ Б. Г. Алиев, М. С. Умаханов. Дагестан в XV—XVI вв. — ИИАЭ ДНЦ РАН. Махачкала, 2004
  62. ^ Chopan-shamkhal left five sons: Eldar, Muhammad, Andiya, and Giray, whose mother was the daughter of utsmi Sultan-Ahmed, and a fifth son named Sultan-Mahmud (Sultan-Mut) whose mother was not from the family of Dagestani rulers.
  63. ^ С. А. Белокуров. Указ. соч. С. 58–59.
  64. ^ Tumen covered the area of northern plains of Dagestan. Tumen — the name of the Turkic tribe that inhabited the coastal area of Dagestan (later associated with the lands of North Caucasian Huns) back in the 1st century AD (См. ЦГА РД, ф.105, оп.2, д.4, л.257.). In 15th-16th centuries Tumen principality occupied the delta of Terek river and extended to the left bank of the lower reaches of Sulak river. In 1588 as a result of Russian fortress being built on Terek river, the Tumen murzas (nobles) moved their residence to Sulak river (Лавров Л. И. Кавказская Тюмень // Из истории дореволюционного Дагестана. М. 1976, с. 163-165.).
  65. ^ In 1599 Georgian ambassadors in Moscow, Saravan and Aram, reported to king Alexander of Georgia, that "neither you nor your men should be sent to fight shevkal [shamkhal], shevkal lives in the mountains, the road to him is narrow". Georgian ambassador Cyril in 1603 reported in Moscow that "shevkal and his children live more in Kazi-Kumuk in the mountains, because that place is strong". (Белокуров С. Указ. раб. С. 302, 405.).
  66. ^ Here what Dutch merchant Isaac Massa (1587–1635) writes about it in his "Short information about beginning and origin of modern wars and strife in Moscovy": "Tsar Boris sent 50000 men among whom were Polish and Livonians also and most of them perished, not many returned. In Moscow there were people telling so much about that country and people that it would fit few books to write about it and they told that in some places they met people as strong as giants who never part with their weapons, neither in the field at the plough tail nor at home, their dwellings are arranged in large caves because there are many mountains and wonderful valleys besides and in mountains there is much cattle. The one who revealed to us these news was wounded in a campaign by many arrows and told us that he with his comrades roamed for long before they reached the Caspian Sea. So not many returned to Moscow attaining nothing". Karamzin N. M. adds: "This battle was misfortunate". (Н. М. Карамзин. История государства Российского. Т.XI. Кн. III.)
  67. ^ Петрушевский И. П. Азербайджан в ХIV–ХVII вв. Сборник статей по истории Азербайджана. — Баку. 1949. С. 279.
  68. ^ В. А. Потто. Кавказская война. Том 1. 1899.
  69. ^ ЦГАДА. Кумыкские дела. 1635. ЛЛ. 28–29.
  70. ^ См. Р. Маршаев, Б. Бутаев. Указ. соч.
  71. ^ Казикумухские и кюринские ханы. ССКГ. 1869. Вып. II. С. 6.
  72. ^ Шамхалы тарковские, ССКГ. 1868. Вып. 1. С. 58.

See also

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gazikumukh_Shamkhalate&oldid=501743951"