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'''Intracellular parasites''' are [[microparasite]]s that are capable of growing and reproducing inside the cells of a [[Host (biology)|host]]. Some [[Parasitism|parasite]]s can cause [[parasitic disease|disease]]. Big shlong
'''Intracellular parasites''' are [[Parasite|parasitic]] [[microorganism]]s - [[microparasite]]s that are capable of growing and reproducing inside the cells of a [[Host (biology)|host]].


==Facultative==
==Facultative==
Line 5: Line 5:


Bacterial examples include:
Bacterial examples include:
*''[[Bartonella henselae]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vetmed.auburn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Bartonella-henselae.pdf|title=Bartonella henselae}}</ref>
*''[[Francisella tularensis]]''
*''[[Francisella tularensis]]''
*''[[Listeria monocytogenes]]''
*''[[Listeria monocytogenes]]''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dramsi|first=Shaynoor|last2=Cossart|first2=Pascale|date=2002-03-18|title=Listeriolysin O|journal=The Journal of Cell Biology|volume=156|issue=6|pages=943–946|doi=10.1083/jcb.200202121|issn=0021-9525|pmc=2173465|pmid=11901162}}</ref>
*''[[Salmonella]]''<ref>{{cite pmid|21349094}}</ref>
*[[Salmonella typhi|''Salmonella'' Typhi]]<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Jantsch | first1 = J. | last2 = Chikkaballi | first2 = D. | last3 = Hensel | first3 = M. | title = Cellular aspects of immunity to intracellular Salmonella enterica | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-065X.2010.00981.x | journal = Immunological Reviews | volume = 240 | issue = 1 | pages = 185–195 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21349094}}</ref>
*''[[Brucella]]''
*''[[Brucella]]''
*''[[Legionella]]''
*''[[Legionella]]''
*''[[Mycobacterium]]''
*''[[Mycobacterium]]''
*''[[Nocardia]]''
*''[[Nocardia]]''
*''[[Rhodococcus equi]]''<ref>{{cite pmid|11882714}}</ref>
*''[[Rhodococcus equi]]''<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Kelly | first1 = B. G. | last2 = Wall | first2 = D. M. | last3 = Boland | first3 = C. A. | last4 = Meijer | first4 = W. G. | title = Isocitrate lyase of the facultative intracellular pathogen Rhodococcus equi | journal = Microbiology | volume = 148 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 793–798 | year = 2002 | pmid = 11882714 | doi=10.1099/00221287-148-3-793}}</ref>
*''[[Yersinia]]''
*''[[Yersinia]]''
*''[[Neisseria meningitidis]]''<ref name="pmid17470547">{{cite journal |author=Spinosa MR, Progida C, Talà A, Cogli L, Alifano P, Bucci C |title=The Neisseria meningitidis capsule is important for intracellular survival in human cells |journal=Infect. Immun. |volume=75 |issue=7 |pages=3594–603 |year=2007 |month=July |pmid=17470547 |pmc=1932921 |doi=10.1128/IAI.01945-06 |url=http://iai.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17470547}}</ref>


Fungal examples include:
Fungal examples include:
*''[[Histoplasma capsulatum]]''.<ref name="pmid11082066">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sebghati TS, Engle JT, Goldman WE |title=Intracellular parasitism by Histoplasma capsulatum: fungal virulence and calcium dependence |journal=Science |volume=290 |issue=5495 |pages=1368–72 |date=November 2000 |pmid=11082066 |doi= 10.1126/science.290.5495.1368|bibcode=2000Sci...290.1368S }}</ref>
*''[[Histoplasma capsulatum]]''.<ref name="pmid11082066">{{cite journal |author=Sebghati TS, Engle JT, Goldman WE |title=Intracellular parasitism by Histoplasma capsulatum: fungal virulence and calcium dependence |journal=Science |volume=290 |issue=5495 |pages=1368–72 |year=2000 |month=November |pmid=11082066 |doi= 10.1126/science.290.5495.1368|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11082066}}</ref>
*''[[Cryptococcus neoformans]]''<ref>{{cite doi|10.1186/1471-2180-9-51}}</ref>
*''[[Cryptococcus neoformans]]''<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Alvarez | first1 = M. | last2 = Burns | first2 = T. | last3 = Luo | first3 = Y. | last4 = Pirofski | first4 = L. A. | last5 = Casadevall | first5 = A. | title = The outcome of Cryptococcus neoformans intracellular pathogenesis in human monocytes | journal = BMC Microbiology | volume = 9 | pages = 51 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19265539 | pmc = 2670303 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2180-9-51}}</ref>


==Obligate==
==Obligate==
[[File:Parasite140105-fig3 Toxoplasmosis in a bar-shouldered dove - TEM of 2 tachyzoites.tif|thumb|Two apicomplexans, ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]'', within their host cell. Transmission electron microscopy]]
'''Obligate intracellular parasites''' cannot reproduce outside their host cell, meaning that the parasite's [[reproduction]] is entirely reliant on [[intracellular]] resources.
'''Obligate intracellular parasites''' cannot reproduce outside their host cell, meaning that the parasite's [[reproduction]] is entirely reliant on [[intracellular]] resources.


Obligate intracellular parasites of [[human]]s include:
Obligate intracellular parasites of [[human]]s include:
*[[Virus]]es
*[[virus]]es
*Certain [[bacteria]], including:
*Certain [[bacteria]], including:
**[[Chlamydia (bacterium)|''Chlamydia'']], and closely related species.<ref name="pmid8979345">{{cite journal |vauthors=Amann R, Springer N, Schönhuber W, etal |title=Obligate intracellular bacterial parasites of acanthamoebae related to Chlamydia spp |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=115–21 |date=January 1997 |pmid=8979345 |pmc=168308 |doi= |url=http://aem.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8979345}}</ref>
**[[Chlamydia (bacterium)|''Chlamydia'']], and closely related species.<ref name="pmid8979345">{{cite journal |author=Amann R, Springer N, Schönhuber W, ''et al.'' |title=Obligate intracellular bacterial parasites of acanthamoebae related to Chlamydia spp |journal=Applied and environmental microbiology |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=115–21 |year=1997 |month=January |pmid=8979345 |pmc=168308 |doi= |url=http://aem.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8979345}}</ref>
**''[[Rickettsia]]''
**''[[Rickettsia]]''
**''[[Coxiella (bacterium)|Coxiella]]''
**''[[Coxiella]]''

** Certain species of ''[[Mycobacterium]]'' such as ''[[Mycobacterium leprae]]''
**Certain species of ''[[Mycobacterium]]'' such as ''[[Mycobacterium leprae]]''
*Certain [[protozoa]], including:
*Certain [[protozoa]], including:
**[[Apicomplexan]]s (''[[Plasmodium]]'' spp., ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]'' and ''[[Cryptosporidium parvum]]''<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.ijpara.2003.10.001 | last1 = Deng | first1 = M. | last2 = Lancto | first2 = C. A. | last3 = Abrahamsen | first3 = M. S. | title = Cryptosporidium parvum regulation of human epithelial cell gene expression | journal = International Journal for Parasitology | volume = 34 | issue = 1 | pages = 73–82 | year = 2004 | pmid = 14711592}}</ref>)
**[[Apicomplexan]]s (''[[Plasmodium]]'' spp., ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]'' and ''[[Cryptosporidium parvum]]''<ref>{{cite pmid|14711592}}</ref>)
**[[Trypanosomatid]]s (''[[Leishmania]]'' spp. and ''[[Trypanosoma cruzi]]'')
**[[Trypanosomatid]]s (''[[Leishmania]]'' spp. and ''[[Trypanosoma cruzi]]'')
*Certain [[fungi]]
*Certain [[fungi]]
**''[[Pneumocystis jirovecii]]''<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=860VMT9mTLIC&pg=PA28 Page 28] in: Title: Rook's textbook of dermatology, Volume 4, Rook's Textbook of Dermatology, Tony Burns (FRCP.)
**''[[Pneumocystis jirovecii]]''<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=860VMT9mTLIC&pg=PA28 Page 28] in: Title: Rook's textbook of dermatology, Volume 4, Rook's Textbook of Dermatology, Tony Burns (FRCP.)
Authors: Arthur Rook, Tony Burns (FRCP.)
Authors: Arthur Rook, Tony Burns (FRCP.)
Edition: 8
Edition: 8
Publisher: John Wiley and Sons, 2010
Publisher: John Wiley and Sons, 2010
{{ISBN|1-4051-6169-8}}, {{ISBN|978-1-4051-6169-5}}
ISBN 1-4051-6169-8, ISBN 978-1-4051-6169-5
</ref>
</ref>
The [[mitochondria]] in eukaryotic cells may also have originally been such parasites, but ended up forming a [[mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] relationship ([[endosymbiotic theory]]).<ref>{{cite journal | author=Lynn Sagan | year=1967 | title=On the origin of mitosing cells | journal=[[J Theor Biol]] | volume=14 | issue=3 | pages=255–274 | pmid=11541392 | doi=10.1016/0022-5193(67)90079-3}}</ref>
The [[mitochondria]] in eukaryotic cells may also have originally been such parasites, but ended up forming a mutualistic relationship ([[endosymbiotic theory]]).{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}


Study of obligate pathogens is difficult because they cannot usually be reproduced outside the host. However, in 2009 scientists reported a technique allowing the [[Q-fever]] pathogen ''[[Coxiella burnetii]]'' to grow in an [[axenic]] culture and suggested the technique may be useful for study of other pathogens.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Host cell-free growth of the Q fever bacterium Coxiella burnetii | first1=Anders |last1=Omsland |first2=Diane C. |last2=Cockrell |first3=Dale |last3=Howe |first4=Elizabeth R. |last4=Fischer |first5=Kimmo |last5=Virtaneva |first6=Daniel E. |last6=Sturdevant |first7=Stephen F. |last7=Porcella |first8=Robert A. |last8=Heinzen |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA |date=Mar 17, 2009|volume=106 |issue=11 |pages=4430–4 |pmid=19246385 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0812074106 |pmc=2657411| bibcode=2009PNAS..106.4430O }}</ref>
Study of obligate pathogens is difficult because they cannot usually be reproduced outside the host. However, in 2009 scientists reported a technique allowing the [[Q-fever]] pathogen ''[[Coxiella burnetii]]'' to grow in an [[axenic]] culture and suggested the technique may be useful for study of other pathogens.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Host cell-free growth of the Q fever bacterium Coxiella burnetii | first1=Anders |last1=Omsland |first2=Diane C. |last2=Cockrell |first3=Dale |last3=Howe |first4=Elizabeth R. |last4=Fischer |first5=Kimmo |last5=Virtaneva |first6=Daniel E. |last6=Sturdevant |first7=Stephen F. |last7=Porcella |first8=Robert A. |last8=Heinzen |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA |date=2009 Mar 17|volume=106 |issue=11 |pages=4430–4 |accessdate=September 18, 2011 |pmid=19246385 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0812074106 |pmc=2657411}}</ref>


== Nutrition ==
== Nutrition ==
The majority of Intracellular parasites must keep host cells alive as long as possible while they are reproducing and growing.
The majority of intracellular parasites must keep host cells alive as long as possible while they are reproducing and growing. In order to grow, they need nutrients that might be scarce in their free form in the cell. To study the mechanism that intracellular parasites use to obtain nutrients, ''[[Legionella pneumophila]]'', a facultative intracellular parasite, has been used as a model. It is known that ''Legionella pneumophila'' obtains nutrients by promoting host [[Proteasome|proteasomal]] degradation.<ref name=pmid22096100>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1212868 |pmid=22096100 |title=Host Proteasomal Degradation Generates Amino Acids Essential for Intracellular Bacterial Growth |journal=Science |volume=334 |issue=6062 |pages=1553–7 |year=2011 |last1=Price |first1=C. T. D |last2=Al-Quadan |first2=T |last3=Santic |first3=M |last4=Rosenshine |first4=I |last5=Abu Kwaik |first5=Y |bibcode=2011Sci...334.1553P }}</ref> Self-degradation of host proteins into [[amino acids]] provides the parasite with its primary carbon and energy source.<ref>Heuner K; Swanson M (editors). (2008). Legionella: Molecular Microbiology. Caister Academic Press.{{pn|date=July 2018}}</ref>
In order to grow they need nutrients that might be scarce in their free form in the cell. To study the mechanism that intracellular parasites use to obtain nutrients ''[[Legionella pneumophila]]'', a facultative intracellular parasite, has been used as a model.

Thus we know that ''[[Legionella pneumophila]]'' obtains nutrients by promoting host proteasomal degradation. Self-degradation of host proteins into [[amino acids]] provides the parasite the primary carbon and energy source.<ref>Heuner K; Swanson M (editors). (2008). Legionella: Molecular Microbiology. Caister Academic Press.</ref>
== Susceptibility ==
⚫
People with [[T cell deficiencies]] are particularly susceptible to intracellular pathogens.<ref name=Bannister2006-432>[https://books.google.com/books?id=iPuvQDcqW88C&pg=PA432 Page 432], Chapter 22, in: {{cite book |author1=Jones, Jane |author2=Bannister, Barbara A. |author3=Gillespie, Stephen H. |title=Infection: Microbiology and Management |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location= |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=1-4051-2665-5 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}{{pn|date=July 2018}}</ref>


==See also==
==Susceptibility==
⚫
People with [[T cell deficiencies]] are particularly susceptible to intracellular pathogens.<ref name=Bannister2006-432>[http://books.google.com/books?id=iPuvQDcqW88C&pg=PA432 Page 432], Chapter 22, in: {{cite book |author=Jones, Jane; Bannister, Barbara A.; Gillespie, Stephen H. |title=Infection: Microbiology and Management |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location= |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=1-4051-2665-5 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* [[Myzocytosis]]


== References ==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist}}


[[Category:Parasitology]]
[[Category:Parasitology]]
[[Category:Endoparasites]]
[[Category:Parasitism]]

Revision as of 21:22, 10 November 2019

Intracellular parasites are parasitic microorganisms - microparasites that are capable of growing and reproducing inside the cells of a host.

Facultative

Facultative intracellular parasites are capable of living and reproducing either inside or outside cells.

Bacterial examples include:

Fungal examples include:

Obligate

Obligate intracellular parasites cannot reproduce outside their host cell, meaning that the parasite's reproduction is entirely reliant on intracellular resources.

Obligate intracellular parasites of humans include:

The mitochondria in eukaryotic cells may also have originally been such parasites, but ended up forming a mutualistic relationship (endosymbiotic theory).[citation needed]

Study of obligate pathogens is difficult because they cannot usually be reproduced outside the host. However, in 2009 scientists reported a technique allowing the Q-fever pathogen Coxiella burnetii to grow in an axenic culture and suggested the technique may be useful for study of other pathogens.[9]

Nutrition

The majority of Intracellular parasites must keep host cells alive as long as possible while they are reproducing and growing. In order to grow they need nutrients that might be scarce in their free form in the cell. To study the mechanism that intracellular parasites use to obtain nutrients Legionella pneumophila, a facultative intracellular parasite, has been used as a model. Thus we know that Legionella pneumophila obtains nutrients by promoting host proteasomal degradation. Self-degradation of host proteins into amino acids provides the parasite the primary carbon and energy source.[10]

Susceptibility

People with T cell deficiencies are particularly susceptible to intracellular pathogens.[11]

References

  1. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 21349094, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=21349094 instead.
  2. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 11882714, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=11882714 instead.
  3. ^ Spinosa MR, Progida C, Talà A, Cogli L, Alifano P, Bucci C (2007). "The Neisseria meningitidis capsule is important for intracellular survival in human cells". Infect. Immun. 75 (7): 3594–603. doi:10.1128/IAI.01945-06. PMC 1932921. PMID 17470547. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Sebghati TS, Engle JT, Goldman WE (2000). "Intracellular parasitism by Histoplasma capsulatum: fungal virulence and calcium dependence". Science. 290 (5495): 1368–72. doi:10.1126/science.290.5495.1368. PMID 11082066. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-51, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1186/1471-2180-9-51 instead.
  6. ^ Amann R, Springer N, Schönhuber W; et al. (1997). "Obligate intracellular bacterial parasites of acanthamoebae related to Chlamydia spp". Applied and environmental microbiology. 63 (1): 115–21. PMC 168308. PMID 8979345. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 14711592, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=14711592 instead.
  8. ^ Page 28 in: Title: Rook's textbook of dermatology, Volume 4, Rook's Textbook of Dermatology, Tony Burns (FRCP.) Authors: Arthur Rook, Tony Burns (FRCP.) Edition: 8 Publisher: John Wiley and Sons, 2010 ISBN 1-4051-6169-8, ISBN 978-1-4051-6169-5
  9. ^ Omsland, Anders; Cockrell, Diane C.; Howe, Dale; Fischer, Elizabeth R.; Virtaneva, Kimmo; Sturdevant, Daniel E.; Porcella, Stephen F.; Heinzen, Robert A. (2009 Mar 17). "Host cell-free growth of the Q fever bacterium Coxiella burnetii". Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA. 106 (11): 4430–4. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812074106. PMC 2657411. PMID 19246385. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ Heuner K; Swanson M (editors). (2008). Legionella: Molecular Microbiology. Caister Academic Press.
  11. ^ Page 432, Chapter 22, in: Jones, Jane; Bannister, Barbara A.; Gillespie, Stephen H. (2006). Infection: Microbiology and Management. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-2665-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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