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Emerald ash borer
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Buprestidae
Genus: Agrilus
Species:
A. planipennis
Binomial name
Agrilus planipennis
Fairmaire, 1888
Synonyms[1]
  • Agrilus feretrius Obenberger
  • Agrilus marcopoli Obenberger

The emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) is a green beetle native to Asia and Eastern Russia.[2] Outside its native region, the emerald ash borer (also referred to as EAB) is an invasive species, and emerald ash borer infestation is highly destructive to ash trees in its introduced range.[3] The Emerald Ash Borer was first discovered in America in June 2002 in Michigan. It is believed to have been brought to America unintentionally in ash wood which was used to stabilize crates during shipping.

Range

Worldwide

North America

Spread

Life cycle

Underside of Agrilus planipennis
Agrilus planipennis mating

A. planipennis may take one or two years to complete its life-cycle depending on 1) the timing of egg deposition, 2) the health and stress level of the tree, and 3) local temperatures. The one-year EAB life-cycle is described below.[4]

Adults The adult beetle is dark metallic green, bullet-shaped and about 8.5 millimetres (0.33 in) long and 1.6 mm (1⁄16 in) wide. The body is narrow and elongated, and the head is flat with black eyes. Adults begin to emerge from the trunks of ash trees after the accumulation of 400-500 growing degree days base 50°F (GDD). Peak adult emergence occurs at ~1000 GDD. After emergence, adults fly into the ash canopy where they feed on leaves throughout their lives. EAB adults start mating one week after emergence, and females begin laying eggs 2–3 weeks later. In the field, EAB adults are readily observed mating and egg-laying on the trunks of ash trees on warm, sunny afternoons and evenings. The adults of both sexes are strong fliers.[4]

Eggs A typical emerald ash borer female will lay approximately 100 eggs during her 2-month life; 56% of these eggs on average will be female.[5] Eggs are deposited individually or in groups on the bark along the trunk and portions of the major branches. Eggs are laid in areas where the bark is rough, and between bark layers or in bark crevices. Eggs are approximately 1.0 mm long x 0.6 mm wide and creamy white when laid; fertile eggs gradually turn amber after a few days. The eggs hatch after about two weeks.[4]

Larvae Newly hatched larvae bore through the bark to the phloem and outer layer of new sapwood where they feed until the weather gets too cold in the fall. There are four stages of larval development (instars). As they feed, the larvae create long serpentine galleries filled with frass, which enlarge in width as they grow. Larvae are creamy white, and dorso-ventrally flattened. When fully mature, fourth-instar larvae are 26 to 32 mm long. Their head is mostly retracted into the prothorax with only the dark brown mouthparts visible. The prothorax is enlarged, with the mesothorax and metathorax more narrow. Larvae have 10 bell-shaped abdominal segments and a pair of small brown structures called urogomphi, which are characteristic of all larvae in the genus Agrilus.[4]

Overwintering larvae, pre-pupae, and pupae In the fall, mature fourth-instar EAB larvae excavate pupal chambers in the sapwood or outer bark where they fold into overwintering “J-shaped larvae”. In the spring, the J-shaped larvae shorten into prepupae then shed their cuticle to become naked pupae. Pupae are initially creamy white, but the eyes turn red and the body begins to darken as they develop. To emerge from ash trees, adults chew D-shaped exit holes through the bark and are capable of immediate flight upon emergence. EAB larvae that are immature as cold weather arrives in the fall will simply overwinter in their larval gallery. Larger larvae complete development the following spring, whereas smaller larvae may require another summer of feeding to complete development.[4]

Effect on trees

The most significant damage to a tree by the emerald ash borer takes place when the insect is in its larval stage. In an infestation, bore holes and serpentine feeding galleries of the larvae essentially disrupt the flow of nutrients as they rise up the trunk from the roots to the crown via the phloem (the tree's vascular structures) just under the bark. This eventually results in the death of the tree. This can take place over a number of years, and the first noticeable sign is usually some die back in the crown of the tree. The tree will usually be dead by the following year or soon after. In areas where the insect is invasive and has no natural predators, it can and usually does have a devastating effect on the local ash tree population.

Factors influencing population density

Host plant-resistance

Natural enemies

  • Parasitoids
  • Predators
  • Pathogens

Insecticides

Used primarily in urban settings. List insecticides.

EAB in North America

Outside its native range in eastern Russia, northern China, Japan, and Korea, emerald ash borer is an invasive species, that is highly destructive to ash trees in its introduced range.[6] [7] The potential damage of this insect rivals that of Chestnut blight and Dutch elm disease. Since its accidental introduction into the United States and Canada in the 1990s and its subsequent detection in 2002 in Canton, Michigan, it has since been found in several other parts of the North America. Ohio, Minnesota, and Ontario have experienced emerald ash borer migration from Michigan, and has continued to spread across the continent. [8] It has killed at least 50 to 100 million ash trees so far and threatens to kill most of the 8.7 billion ash trees throughout North America.[9] The emerald ash borer is now one of the most destructive non-native insects in the United States; it and other wood-boring pests cause an estimated $3.5 billion in annual damages in the U.S.[10]

Factors influencing invasiveness and spread

Without factors that would normally suppress EAB populations in its native range, such as resistant plants, predators, and parasites, populations can quickly rise to damaging levels. [11]. All species of North American show susceptibility to EAB and will eventually die. North American species planted in China also showed high mortality due to EAB, but Chinese species showed resistance. Upon the arrival of EAB in North America, many of the specialized predators and parasites that suppressed its populations in Asia were not present in North America. (thought that combined effects suppress EAB in China). Predators and parasites native to North America do not sufficiently suppress EAB, so populations continue to grow and kill trees (percentages) within X years.

The large amount of susceptible plants and lack of natural enemies represents an open niche conducive to the spread of EAB to other areas. EAB is able to fly X miles per day. However, it is primarily spread by transport of firewood and other wood products that contain ash bark. This allows EAB to spread to new areas to create satellite populations outside of the main infestation.

Other factors such as cold can limit spread. Recent climate research seems to suggest that EAB growth may be stemmed by areas far too cold for the beetle to survive.[12][13]

Environmental and economic impact

The insect threatens the entire North American Fraxinus genus, unlike past invasive tree pests in North America. The green ash and the black ash trees are preferred. White ash is also killed rapidly, but usually only after green and black ash trees are eliminated. Blue ash displays some resistance to the emerald ash borer by forming callous tissue around EAB galleries; however, usually they are eventually killed also.[5]

Cities such as Minneapolis, Minnesota have slightly more than 20% of their urban forest as ash.[14] This is typical, as many cities have high ash populations because of their ability to tolerate urban stress and survive poor planting practices that plague urban cities today. The Minneapolis – Saint Paul metro area has between 2 and 2.5 million ash.

All towns and cities with significant ash populations will be eventually invaded by the Emerald ash borer and go through the EAB curve of death. How a town or a city prepares for this arrival is important. Having no plan will mean trees will die quickly. Dead ash trees will be everywhere, faster than expected. Dealing with this scenario carries a very high cost. However, having a planned management strategy will cost far less, spreading these costs out significantly longer. In addition, important ash trees will be alive for many years - for less expense than removal and replacement.[15][16]

Emerald ash borer kills young trees when only 1" DBH in size, or several years before reaching their seeding age of 10. Field studies of the first Michigan forests which succumbed to EAB earlier in this event showed that the borer had killed off all living Fraxinus of every age and type within them. Forest floor samples of these same plots resulted in ground soils void of seeds which could be capable of germinating continued generations.[5]

Management

Monitoring

Tree removal and replacement

Insecticides

Insecticides containing three active ingridients for preventing damage are currently recommended: imidacloprid, emamectin benzoate, and dinotefuran.[17] New treatments being tested may soon be recommended as well.[18] However, some marketed products have no proven efficacy. In particular, store-brand 2.94% imidacloprid formulations are effective only on trees having a diameter under 8 inches (20 cm) (DBH). Larger trees require professional-strength formulations with the "2X imidacloprid" label.[17]

  • Imidacloprid

Imidacloprid is applied to the soil within 1 foot (30 cm) of the tree trunk. Some imidacloprid products require a license to apply. However, water-soluble and injected flowable imidacloprid is not restricted and homeowners can purchase and protect their own trees without needing a license.[citation needed] Annual treatments are required for continued protection.[17] Imidacloprid can harm water insects and insect larvae if applied directly to water.[19] After application it takes 30 to 60 days for imidacloprid to move up into the tree with enough strength to become effective.[17]

  • Emamectin Benzoate

Emamectin benzoate is applied through holes that are drilled into the ash trunk. Each hole has a plug that is designed to prevent the solution from coming back out and to create a reservoir from which the solution is absorbed by the tree. Holes must be drilled into the tree every two years. Ash are tough, and could be treated a few times without issue, but over many years drilling and chemical wounds will compromise the tree's health.[20][21] This product is the most toxic to the insect and had the highest score in terms of having the least amount of living larvae in treated trees. Only professional and licensed certified applicators can apply this product.[17] Treatment is effective for two years.[22] It can only be applied by a professional. Homeowners or do-it-yourself people cannot use this product as it is a restricted use material.[23]

  • Dinotefuran

Dinotefuran is similar to imidacloprid in that it can be applied to the soil with a soil injector. Its advantage is that it moves into the tree about 3 times faster than imidacloprid. Thus, it can be used later in the season and as a rescue treatment. Dinotefuran can also be sprayed on the trunk of the tree as its high solubility allows it to move through the bark. It is available to homeowners. [citation needed]

Biological Control

Additional images

Addtional Emerald Ash Borer images

References

  1. ^ "Data sheets on quarantine pests: Agrilus planipennis" (PDF). OEPP/EPPO Bulletin. 35 (3). European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization: 436–438. 2005. Retrieved August 28, 2013.
  2. ^ "Agrilus planipennis (insect)". Global Invasive Species Database. ISSG-IUCN. August 14, 2006. Retrieved August 28, 2013.
  3. ^ "Emerald Ash Borer". Don't Move Firewood. Retrieved August 28, 2013.
  4. ^ a b c d e Gould, Juli S.; Bauer, Leah S.; Lelito, Jonathan; Duan, Jian (May 2013), Emerald Ash Borer Biological Control Release and Recovery Guidelines (PDF), Riverdale, Maryland, USA: USDA-APHIS-ARS-FS, retrieved August 28, 2013
  5. ^ a b c Anulewicz, Andrea C.; McCullough, Deborah G.; Cappaert, David L. (September 2007). "Emerald Ash Borer (Agrilus planipennis) Density and Canopy Dieback in Three North American Ash Species". Aboriculture & Urban Forestry. 33 (5). International Society of Aboriculture: 338–349. Retrieved May 21, 2014. Cite error: The named reference "Anulewicz, et al., 2007" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  6. ^ "Emerald Ash Borer". Don't Move Firewood. Retrieved August 28, 2013.
  7. ^ "Agrilus planipennis (insect)". Global Invasive Species Database. ISSG-IUCN. August 14, 2006. Retrieved August 28, 2013.
  8. ^ "Emerald ash borer" (PDF). USDA Cooperative Emerald Ash Borer Project. May 1, 2014. Retrieved May 1, 2014.
  9. ^ "emerald ash borer". USDA Forest Service, Michigan State University. Retrieved August 28, 2013.
  10. ^ "Economic Impacts of Non-Native Forest Insects in the Continental United States". Journalist's Resource: Ecology, Real Estate. Harvard Kennedy School. Retrieved August 28, 2013.
  11. ^ Herms, Daniel A.; Deborah G. McCullough (October 9, 2013). "Emerald Ash Borer Invasion of North America: History, Biology, Ecology, Impacts, and Management". Annu. Rev. Entomol. 59: 13-30. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
  12. ^ DeSantis, Ryan D.; et al. (April 21, 2013). "Effects of climate on emerald ash borer mortality and the potential for ash survival in North America". Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 178: 120. Retrieved 27 September 2013. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= (help)
  13. ^ "The Upside Of The Bitter Cold: It Kills Bugs That Kill Trees". National Public Radio. Retrieved May 21, 2014.
  14. ^ "Emerald Ash Borer". Urban Forest. Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board. Retrieved August 29, 2013.
  15. ^ Sadof, Cliff, Developing an EAB Management Strategies for Properties and Cities (PDF), Purdue University Department of Entomology, retrieved August 29, 2013
  16. ^ Emerald Ash Borer Management Statement (PDF), Coalition for Urban Ash Tree Conservation, January 6, 2011, retrieved August 29, 2013
  17. ^ a b c d e Herms, Daniel A.; McCullough, Deborah G.; Smitley, David R.; Sadof, Clifford S.; Williamson, R. Chris; Nixon, Phillip L. (June 2009), "Insecticide Options for Protecting Ash Trees from Emerald Ash Borer" (PDF), North Central IPM Center Bulletin, North Central IPM Center: 12, retrieved August 30, 2013
  18. ^ Herms, Dan, Insecticide Options for Successful Management of Emerald Ash Borer (PDF), Ohio State University, retrieved August 30, 2013
  19. ^ "Imidacloprid Technical Fact Sheet" (PDF). National Pesticide Information Centre. Retrieved August 30, 2013.
  20. ^ Doccola, Joseph J.; Smitley, David R.; Davis, Terrance W.; Aiken, John J.; Wild, Peter M. (January 2011). "Tree Wound Responses Following Systemic Insecticide Trunk Injection Treatments in Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.) as Determined by Destructive Autopsy". Aboriculture & Urban Forestry. 37 (1). International Society of Arboriculture: 6–12. Retrieved August 30, 2013.
  21. ^ Shigo, Alex L.; Campana, Richard (December 1977). "Discolored and decayed wood associated with injection wounds in American Elm". Journal of Arboriculture. 3 (12). International Society of Arboriculture: 230–235. Retrieved August 30, 2013.
  22. ^ Hahn, Jeffrey; Herms, Daniel A.; McCullough, Deborah G. (February 2011), Frequently Asked Questions Regarding Potential Side Effects of Systemic Insecticides Used to Control Emerald Ash Borer (PDF), www.emeraldashborer.info, retrieved August 30, 2013
  23. ^ product label - http://www.treecarescience.com/uploads/100344TREE-age_full_label_4-15-11.pdf

Herms, D. A., McCullough, D. G., Smitley, D. R., Sadof, C. S., & Nixon, P. L. (2009, June). Emerald Ash Borer. Retrieved September 27, 2013, from http://www.emeraldashborer.info/files/Multistate_EAB_Insecticide_Fact_Sheet.pdf

Kovacs, K. F., Haight, R. G., McCullough, D. G., Mercader, R. J., Siegert, N. W., & Liebhold, A. M. (2010). Cost of potential emerald ash borer damage in U.S. communities, 2009?2019. Ecological Economics, 69(3), 569-578. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921800909003681#

McCullough, D., & Usborne, R. (2013, September). Frequently Asked Questions | Emerald Ash Borer Information Network. Retrieved September 27, 2013, from http://www.emeraldashborer.info/faq.cfm#sthash.eVXX903U.dpbs

Partain, C. (2012). Ashes to Ashes. Natural History, 120(8), 48.

USDA (2013, September 5). Cooperative Emerald Ash Borer Project [Map]. Retrieved from http://www.emeraldashborer.info/files/MultiState_EABpos.pdf

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Emerald ash borer.
Wikispecies has information related to Agrilus planipennis.


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