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The Meriam Report (1928), whose official title was The Problem of Indian Administration, was commissioned by the Institute for Government Research (IGR, better known later as the Brookings Institution) and funded by the Rockefeller Foundation. The IGR appointed Lewis Meriam as the technical director of the survey team, to compile information and report of the conditions of American Indians across the country. Meriam submitted the 847-page report to the Secretary of the Interior, Hubert Work, on February 21, 1928.

The report combined narrative with statistics to criticize the Department of Interior's (DOI) implementation of the Dawes Act, and overall conditions on reservations and in Indian boarding schools. The Meriam Report was the first general study of Indian conditions since the 1850s, when the ethnologist and former US Indian Agent Henry R. Schoolcraft had completed a six-volume work for the US Congress. The Meriam Report provided much of the data used to reform American Indian policy through new legislation: the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. It strongly influenced succeeding policies in land allotment, education, and health care. The report found generally that the US federal government was failing at its goals of protecting Native Americans, their land, and their resources, both personal and cultural.

Lewis Meriam and the survey team

Lewis Meriam was born in Salem, Massachusetts in 1883. He received degrees in English and government from Harvard University, law degrees from the National Law School and George Washington University, and a Ph.D. from the Brookings Institution. He worked for several government bureaus both before and after his work on the Indian Survey, including the bureaus of Census and Children’s Welfare.

In 1926, Interior Secretary Hubert Work chose Meriam to head a survey team to investigate Indian Affairs because of his experience with the technical study of government operations, as well as his expertise in government administration. Meriam spent 3 years working on this project, which became known as the “Meriam Commission” or the “Meriam Report”. His involvement in Indian affairs ended in 1936 because of his skepticism of the New Deal.

In 1946 he was appointed as Vice President of the Brookings Institute. He died in Kensington, Maryland, on October 30, 1972.

The survey team

Meriam had difficulty choosing a team because many of the prospective members could not leave their jobs. The IGR required team members to be “persons highly qualified as specialists in their respective fields, scientific in their approach, not sensationalists, and free from preconceived views and opinions that would interfere with their impartiality and fairness in gathering and interpreting the facts.” He finally gathered a team composed of several specialists in a variety of disciplines: Ray A. Brown (legal aspects), Henry Roe Cloud (Indian adviser), Edward Everett Dale (economic conditions), Emma Duke (Indian migration to urban areas), Dr. Herbert Edwards (physician) (health), Fayette Avery McKenzie (source materials), Mary Louise Mark (family life), W. Carson Ryan, Jr. (education), and William J. Spillman (agriculture).

The report

General information

Authorized by the Institute for Government Research on June 12, 1926 at the request of the Secretary of the Interior, the Meriam Commission was charged with investigating the affairs of Indians in the United States. To maintain unbiased standards for the survey, it was financed by the Rockefeller Foundation, not by any government agency or agent. “The investigation would cover nearly all reservations and would deal with educational, industrial, social, and medical activities of the BIA [Bureau of Indian Affairs], as well as with Indian property rights and economic conditions.”

The team conducted seven months of field work to gather its information. They conducted field work in 23 states, selected based on a report by the Bureau of Indian Affairs that arranged states in order of number of Native American inhabitants. The report showed 23 states having more than 1,000 Native American inhabitants, the top three being Oklahoma, Arizona, and South Dakota. The team visited a total of 95 reservations, agencies, hospitals, and schools. At least one member of the survey team visited each of these 95 locations; often members of the team were forced to work independently in order to complete the required work in the shortest possible amount of time. “[Interior Secretary] Work insisted that the survey be completed within one year, so that he might effect changes before a new administration took office in Washington.” This field work produced a report of 847 pages consisting of the following eight sections:

1. A General Policy for Indian Affairs
2. Health
3. Education
4. General Economic Conditions
5. Family and Community Life & the Activities of Women
6. The Migrated Indians
7. The Legal Aspects of the Indian Problem
8. The Missionary Activities among the Indians

The report is concise and unbiased in its analysis: it states the facts of Indian conditions of the 1920s. The conclusion of the report reflects the opinions of the survey team. For example, the report states that “any policy for Indians based on the notion that they can or should be kept permanently isolated from other Americans is bound to fail.” In the report, the survey team included extensive recommendations for the correction of deficiencies, notably in health, education, and government cooperation for legal and social issues.

Health

The report states, “the health of the Indians compared with that of the general population is bad.” It said that the general death rate and the infant mortality rate were high. Serious diseases, such as tuberculosis and trachoma, were very widespread both on reservations in general and specifically at off-reservation boarding schools. In its section on health care services provided by the government to Native Americans, the report states: “The hospitals, sanatoria, and sanatorium schools maintained by the [Indian Health] Service, despite a few exceptions, must generally be characterized as lacking in personnel, equipment, management, and design.” The government, although it had numerous on- and off-reservation health care institutions, did not provide sufficient care for Indian patients. The report noted, “the most important single item affecting health is probably the food supply.” A further setback facing healthcare on Indian reservations was a general lack of knowledge of the Indian languages by healthcare providers.

Economy

The report concluded that “The income of the typical Indian family is low and the earned income extremely low.” The report addressed the poverty thought to have resulted from the individual allotment policy of the Dawes Act. It found: “In justice to the Indians it should be said that many of them are living on lands from which a trained and experienced white man could scarcely wrest a reasonable living.” Not only was loss of land a factor in reservation poverty found on reservations, but the land they held was largely unsuitable for family farming and agriculture. The survey found that “the economic basis of the primitive culture of the Indians has been largely destroyed by the encroachment of white civilization.” A culture that previously had depended on its environment as a sustainable economy was losing the very land on which they survived. The report identified the problems with changing political appointees under elected presidential administrations. Elections tended to bring about a change in top political appointees and changes in economic development programs; thus, the BIA supported no long-term development on reservations. The report also states: “Little attempt has been made to formulate a broad constructive program for the service as a whole, extending over a long term of years, and having for its goal the general improvement of economic conditions.”

Education

The Meriam Report emphasized the need for education but it suggested that such education should be based on integration of Indian children into the majority culture, rather than educating Indian children in separate institutions, as previous education policies had stressed. The first line in the education section states, “The most fundamental need in Indian education is a change in point of view.” The report was particularly critical of Indian boarding schools: “The survey staff finds itself obligated to say frankly and unequivocally that the provisions for the care of the Indian children in boarding schools are grossly inadequate.” The survey team concluded that the boarding schools provided poor diet, were overcrowded, did not provide sufficient medical services, were supported by student labor, and relied on a uniform curriculum rather than raising teacher standards. While the report drew attention to the gross deficiencies of Indian boarding school education, the assimilationist policies of Indian education, dependent on such boarding schools, continued for another 40 years. The schools reached their peak student enrollment of 60,000 in the 1970s.

Results

The Meriam Report can be seen to have affected several aspects of government policy. “Acting upon the emergency recommendations of the Meriam Report, President Hoover requested additional funds to supply adequate food and clothing for pupils in the Indian schools.” Additionally, Charles J. Rhoads and J. Henry Scattergood (Commissioner and Assistant Commissioner of Indian Affairs, appointed by Hoover), accomplished or initiated many of the recommendations of the Meriam Report. President Hoover appointed Rhoads to put together a reform package which included the closure of unpopular reservation boarding schools and improved medical facilities. However, nothing was immediately done to change the alloted land situation which caused disappointment among Native Americans. They would have to wait until 1934 for the policy of allotment to come to an end.

The most significant and influential effect of the Meriam Report was from its strong criticism of the Dawes Act and analysis of its failings. Also known as the General Allotment Act, the Dawes Act of 1887 had sought to break up the communal Indian land by allocating allotments to individual Indian households, encouraging families to undertake subsistence farming, the model of European-American culture.

“The immediate result of the report’s attack on [land] allotment was a decline in the issuance of allotted lands. In the four fiscal years prior to the initiation of the study, 1922–1926, approximately 10,000 Native Americans were allotted over 3 million acres from their Reservations. In comparison, during the fiscal years 1929-1932, the 4 years immediately following the publication of 'The Problem of Indian Administration,' a little over 2,800 Native Americans were allotted less than 500,000 acres.”

Within five years of the Report, the policy of allotment was abandoned altogether. On June 18, 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Indian Reorganization Act into law. Although the Meriam report did condemn allotment and had an impact on the Indian Reorganization Act, the Act was actually largely attributed to John Collier who had been appointed by Roosevelt as Commissioner for Indian Affairs. This new act ended allotment and permitted tribes to organize their own governments and to incorporate their trust lands communally.

The Meriam Report of 1928

The Brookings Institute

Henry Roe Cloud was the American Indian advisor to the Meriam Report.

In 1923, in the wake of intense political pressure to reverse the policy of the Dawes Act, Secretary of the Interior Hubert Work invited an eminent group of Americans to form the "Advisory Council on Indian Affairs", which became known as the select "Committee of One Hundred", to review and advise on Indian policy. McKenzie was appointed to the Committee along with Bernard M. Baruch, Nicholas Murray Butler, William Jennings Bryan, David Starr Jordan, Gen. John J. Pershing, Mark Sullivan, Roy Lyman Wilbur, William Allen White and Oswald Garrison Villard. Also included were John Collier of the American Indian Defense Association, M.K. Sniffen of the Indian Rights Association.

The Meriam Report (1928)

McKenzie Survey (1926–1927), The Brookings Institute

McKenzie Survey (1926–1927), The Brookings Institute

On June 2, 1926, upon recommendations by the Committee, the Phelps-Stokes Fund, through McKenzie's longtime friend and colleague Thomas Jesse Jones, granted $5,000 the Institute for Government Research (now the Brookings Institution) to conduct a two year study of the overall condition of Indians in the United States. The Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial provided primary financial underwriting for that program.

As technical director of the project, Lewis Meriam gathered a team of nine specialists from a variety of disciplines, with Fayette Avery McKenzie, professor of sociology and dean of men at Juniata College, as specialist in existing material related to Indians; Henry Roe Cloud president of the American Indian Institute in Wichita, Kansas, as the Indian adviser. Also included were Edward Everett Dale, head of the history department, University of Oklahoma; Emma Duke, specialist in health, Washington, D.C.; Herbert R. Edwards, medical field secretary of the National Tuberculosis Association; W. Carson Ryan, Jr., professor of education, Swarthmore College; Mary Louise Mark, professor of sociology, Ohio State University; Ray A. Brown, assistant professor of law, University of Wisconsin; and William J. Spellman, agricultural economist, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Study committees included legal issues, general economic conditions, health, conditions of Indian migrants to urban communities, family life and activities of women, education, and agriculture. While the Institute made it a rule not to select employees or former employees of the Indian Service, they made an exception in McKenzie’s case, concluding that his early work on the Wind River Indian Reservation “was not regarded as a barrier.” During 1926 and 1927, McKenzie was sent by the Brookings Institute with an Indian staff to study the problems on various reservations.

On February 21, 1928, The Problem of Indian Administration, a 872 page document known as the Meriam Report, for Lewis Meriam, its technical director, was published by Johns Hopkins Press. The report received wide acclaim as the most comprehensive survey of American Indians ever conducted. McKenzie’s influence as Specialist in Existing Material Related to Indians was significant, and along with Henry Roe Cloud as Indian Advisor, and Technical Director Lewis Meriam, served on all the committees and co-authored the final report. The Meriam Report revealed the failures of federal Indian policies and how they had contributed to severe problems with Indian education, health, and poverty. The Report marked an ideological shift in American Indian policy, calling for a restoration of self-government and communal land to tribes and a reversal of long-standing U.S. government laws to eliminate Indian reservations. Acting upon the emergency recommendations of the Meriam Report, President Herbert Hoover directed Commissioner Charles J. Rhoads of the Bureau of Indian Affairs to prepare a reform package for improved medical facilities, adequate food and clothing and the closure of unpopular reservation boarding schools. On June 18, 1934, within five years of the Meriam Report, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Indian Reorganization Act, restoring self-government and communal land to tribes and reversing long-standing U.S. government laws to eliminate Indian reservations. Popularly known as the Indian New Deal, the initiative was administered by progressive John Collier, Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs from 1933 to 1945.

Society leadership in Indian affairs

President Calvin Coolidge presented with a book written by G. E. E. Linquist titled "The Red Man In The United States" (1919). Ruth Muskrat-Bronson (center) making the presentation on behalf of “The Committee of One Hundred” with Rev. Sherman Coolidge (right), December, 1923.

Taos Pueblo, New Mexico

While the Society disbanded in the Fall of 1923, the leadership continued to influence Indian affairs. In May 1923, Society leaders joined with reformer John Collier and founded the American Indian Defense Association in response to the injustices forced upon the Pueblos of New Mexico by the Bursum Bill (1921) and the Dance Order (1923). In 1921, Senator Holm O. Bursum of New Mexico introduced a bill whose effect would have been to divest the Pueblos of large portions of their lands in favor of squatters. By 1922, Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall strongly supported the "Bursum Bill." By 1923, the plight of Pueblos in New Mexico evoked widespread public sympathy emerged as the symbol of the injustices forced upon American Indian. The Pueblos of New Mexico maintained a strong internal cohesion as self-governing societies for hundreds of years. Each Pueblo owned lands communally and unconditionally under grants from the King of Spain later confirmed by the United States Congress. Also in 1923, Commissioner Charles H. Burke of Indian Affairs issued a “Dance Order”, also known as the "Leavitt Bill", directing superintendents to discourage the "giveaways" which were part of the ceremonials of a number of tribes, as well as to any dances the agent deemed immoral, indecent or dangerous. The Dance Order was issued in response to lobbying by the Indian Rights Association and missionaries who were opposed to the growing influence of the Peyote religion, and threatened to remove the right of Pueblo Indians to perform their traditional dances and ceremonies in New Mexico. The American Indian Defense Association became a powerful new lobby in Washington and successfully challenged government confiscation of communal Indian lands and restriction of religious freedom, and the Bursum Bill was defeated and the Dance Order withdrawn.

In 1923, in the wake of the American Indian Defense Association's momentum to check and reverse the policy of the Dawes Act, Secretary of the Interior Hubert Work invited an eminent group of Americans to form the "Advisory Council on Indian Affairs", which became known as the "Committee of One Hundred", to review and advise on Indian policy. The group consisted of some of the most distinguished men and women in public life including Bernard M. Baruch, Nicholas Murray Butler, William Jennings Bryan, David Starr Jordan, Gen. John J. Pershing, Mark Sullivan, Roy Lyman Wilbur, William Allen White and Oswald Garrison Villard. Also included were John Collier of the American Indian Defense Association and M.K. Sniffen of the Indian Rights Association. On December 12 and 13, 1923, the Committee of One-Hundred met in Washington, D.C. Former Society leadership was well represented by Rev. Sherman Coolidge, Arthur C. Parker, Dennison Wheelock, Charles Eastman, Thomas L. Sloan, Father Philip Gordon, Henry Roe Cloud J.N.B. Hewitt and Fayette Avery McKenzie. Parker and McKenzie and teamed once again, and Parker was selected to preside over the Committee sessions and McKenzie chairman of the resolutions subcommittee. McKenzie observed, “It would be interesting to compare the platform of this conference with the positions taken in earlier years by the Society. In general it was a summarization of those positions, but in more general terms.”

References

• Bolt, Christine. American Indian Policy and American Reform: Case Studies of the Campaign to Assimilate the American Indians. London: Allen and Unwin, 1987.
• Holm, Tom. The Great Confusion in Indian Affairs: Native Americans and Whites in the Progressive Era. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007.
• Meriam, Lewis. The Problem of Indian Administration: Report of a Survey made at the Request of Honorable Hubert Work, Secretary of the Interior, and Submitted to Him, February 21, 1928/Survey Staff: Lewis Meriam...[et al.]. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1928.
• Parman, Donald L. and Lewis Meriam. "Lewis Meriam's Letters during the Survey of Indian Affairs 1926-1927 (Part 1)." Arizona and the West 24, 3 (Autumn, 1992), 253-280.
• Prucha, Francis Paul. The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1984.
• Prucha, Francis Paul. The Great Father, one volume abridged edition, 1986

Further reading

• Child, Brenda J. (2000). Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-6405-2.
• Olson, James S. and Raymond Wilson (1984). Native Americans in the Twentieth Century. Chicago: U of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-01285-3.

External links

• 1928 Meriam Report, full text online, hosted at Alaskool.org