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'''Infectious Diseases within American Prisons''' have caused alarm within the public health sector of much of the world. The prison population easily falls victim to infectious diseases for varying reasons including exposure to infectious blood and bodily fluid, drug injection, poor health care, overcrowding, demographics, issues between security and public health care, lack of community support for prison rehabilitation programs and behaviors described to be high risk.<ref name=Weinbaum>{{cite journal|last=Weinbaum|first=Cindy M|coauthors=Sabin, Keith M. Santibanez, Scott S|title=Hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV in correctional population... : AIDS|journal=AIDS: Official Journal of the International AIDS Society|year=2005|month=October|volume=19|pages=p S41–S46|url=http://journals.lww.com/aidsonline/Fulltext/2005/10003/Hepatitis_B,_hepatitis_C,_and_HIV_in_correctional.8.aspx}}</ref> <ref name=Simooya>{{cite journal|last=Simooya|first=Oscar O|title=Infections in Prison in Low and Middle Income Countries: Prevalence and Prevention Strategies|journal=Open Infectious Diseases Journal|year=2010|issue=Special Issue|pages=33–37|url=http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?sid=c087eb56-44c4-4358-a186-e57b7959798a%40sessionmgr114&vid=7&hid=114&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=a9h&AN=58601396|doi=10.2174/1874279301004020033|volume=4}}</ref> The spread of infectious diseases, such as [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]], [[Hepatitis C]], [[Hepatitis B]] and [[Tuberculosis]], result largely from syringe sharing and general drug use amongst prisoners.<ref name=Stark>{{cite journal|last=STARK|first=K.|coauthors=HERRMANN, U.; EHRHARDT, S.; BIENZLE, U.|title=A syringe exchange programme in prison as prevention strategy against HIV infection and hepatitis B and C in Berlin, Germany|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|date=22 December 2005|volume=134|issue=4|pages=814|doi=10.1017/S0950268805005613}}</ref> In addition to the disease spreading while individuals are incarcerated, the people who are in prison are already subjected to environments, where there are high rates of infectious diseases.<ref name="Arp"></ref> Both HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis C are of particular concern for issues regarding public health and therefore call for specific attention. |
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==HIV/AIDS== |
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At least 17% of people living with HIV/AIDS have been incarcerated at some point in their life.<ref name=Arp>{{cite journal|last=Arp III|first=William|title=Race, Incarceration, and HIV/AIDS in Louisiana: Risky Behavior Requires mandatory Testing|journal=Race, Gender, & Class|year=2009|volume=16|issue=1/2|pages=228–237}}</ref> The rate of contracting HIV is ten to one hundred times higher inside the prison system than in the outside world.<ref name="Women Prison HIV">{{cite journal|last=Chandler|first=Cynthia|title=Death and dying in America: the prison industrial complex's impact on women's health|journal=Berkeley Women's Law Journal|year=2003|volume=18|page=40}}</ref> The incarcerated population is more susceptible to contracting the disease because they are exposed to more high-risk behavior within a state-penal system. In a Louisiana prison study, 242 inmates or 72.8% of male inmates had participated in sexual encounters with other men, where they did not always have access to proper protection. <ref name="Arp" /> Additionally, research on prisons nationwide displayed that there is a much greater proportion of individuals within prisons that developed AIDS through injection in comparison to the rest of the population with AIDS. The much larger population within incarcerated spaces that have the disease is a result of more people being sentenced to prison for drug-related offenses or known as a consequence of the [[war on drugs]].<ref name=Hazel>{{cite journal|last=Dean-Gaitor|first=Hazel D.|coauthors=Patricia L. Fleming|title=Epidemiology of AIDS in incarcerated persons in the United States, 1994-1996|journal=AIDS|year=1999|volume=13|issue=17|pages=429–2435|doi=10.1097/00002030-199912030-00015}}</ref><ref name=Lynda>{{cite journal|last=Lynda|first=Doll|coauthors=Juarlyn Gaitor|title=Improving HIV/AIDS prevention in prisons is good public health policy|journal=American Journal of Public Health|year=1996|volume=86|issue=9|pages=1201–1203|doi=10.2105/AJPH.86.9.1201|pmid=8806366|pmc=1380577}}</ref> Since prisons divide the individuals by gender, the incarcerated populations experience different environments, where the rate of women contracting HIV is greater than men. <ref name="Women Prison HIV"></ref> |
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==Hepatitis C== |
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While the majority of Hepatitis C, or HCV, infections occur outside of prison, the disease is still widely spread within the prison system as a result of drug injection.<ref name=Champion>{{cite journal|last=Champion|first=J. K.|title=Incidence of Hepatitis C Virus Infection and Associated Risk Factors among Scottish Prison Inmates: A Cohort Study|journal=American Journal of Epidemiology|date=1 March 2004|volume=159|issue=5|pages=514–519|doi=10.1093/aje/kwh061|pmid=14977648|last2=Taylor|first2=A|last3=Hutchinson|first3=S|last4=Cameron|first4=S|last5=McMenamin|first5=J|last6=Mitchell|first6=A|last7=Goldberg|first7=D}}</ref> In fact, according to one Rhode Island prison study, HCV infection was found in 23.1% of the male prison population.<ref name=Macalino>{{cite journal|last=Macalino|first=Grace E.|coauthors=Vlahov, David; Sanford-Colby, Stephanie; Patel, Sarju; Sabin, Keith; Salas, Christopher; Rich, Josiah D.|title=Prevalence and Incidence of HIV, Hepatitis B Virus, and Hepatitis C Virus Infections Among Males in Rhode Island Prisons|journal=American Journal of Public Health|date=1 July 2004|volume=94|issue=7|pages=1218–1223|doi=10.2105/AJPH.94.7.1218|pmid=15226146|pmc=1448424}}</ref> Hepatitis C prevention proves to be more challenging than HIV prevention, though, because inmates partake in risky behaviors such as “front loading” and sharing spoons to prepare drugs.<ref name=Stark /> The prevalence of these diseases within prisons are a concern because they pose a potential public health risk. When prisoners are released, they may continue the same high risk behavior they participated in while incarcerated, thereby increasing the chances of the disease spreading to outside communities.<ref name=Macalino /> |
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==Preventative Measures== |
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Approaches to preventing the spread of disease within prisons call for not only internal changes within correctional facilities, but also through external community support. Possible prevention techniques include vaccinations, selective testing, methadone treatments for drug addicts, access to sterile syringes and needles, having proper cleaning materials for syringes and needles, lowering the prison population, improving healthcare within prisons, increased availability of condoms, psychological therapy or counseling, or educative classes on drug use and sexual behavior for both inmates and staff members.<ref name=Weinbaum /> <ref name=Simooya /> <ref name=Stark /> While the [[World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]] has endorsed these practices, only Vermont and Mississippi State Prisons in addition to Los Angeles, San Francisco, New York, Philadelphia and Washington County Jails have provided condoms to inmates. <ref name="Men's Health">{{cite journal|last=Braithwaite|first=Ronald L.|coauthors=Kimberly R.J. Arriola|title=Male Prisoners and HIV Prevention: A Call for Action Ignored|journal=American Journal of Public Health|year=2003|month=May|volume=93|issue=5|pages=759–763|doi=10.2105/AJPH.93.5.759|pmid=12721138|pmc=1447833}}</ref> However, others have argued against providing condoms because officials feel as though it promotes a sexual activity, which is marked as illegal within the prison system. This potential solution requires further research.<ref name=Lynda></ref> Some prisons already provide prevention techniques such as bleach tablets for cleaning, drug counseling, detoxification and drug behavior management, but these techniques are not fully effective.<ref name=Champion /> Separating infected individuals from the rest of the prison population also does not prove effective because not all infected people test positive. This, therefore, promotes high-risk actions because there is a perceived lack of an infected population. While vaccination programs are accepted, they are not widely implemented. Substance abuse programs are also rare although HIV and HCV testing are widely available.<ref name=Weinbaum /> Because of the ineffectiveness of some prevention techniques, advocates push for alternative forms of rehabilitation for drug offenders in order to keep these potentially infected people outside of the prison system.<ref name=Champion /> These techniques do not only apply to HIV and HCV prevention, but also address the various other diseases present within correctional facilities. Since prevention of infection diseases presents a major unsolved problem, public healthcare professionals advocate for a more inclusive and all encompassing approach. <ref name=Weinbaum /> |
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==See also== |
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*[[Prison Industrial Complex]] |
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*[[Incarceration in the United States]] |
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*[[War on Drugs]] |
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*[[List of U.S. state prisons]] |
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== References == |
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{{reflist}} |
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Infectious Diseases within American Prisons
Infectious Diseases within American Prisons have caused alarm within the public health sector of much of the world. The prison population easily falls victim to infectious diseases for varying reasons including exposure to infectious blood and bodily fluid, drug injection, poor health care, overcrowding, demographics, issues between security and public health care, lack of community support for prison rehabilitation programs and behaviors described to be high risk.[1] [2] The spread of infectious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis C, Hepatitis B and Tuberculosis, result largely from syringe sharing and general drug use amongst prisoners.[3] In addition to the disease spreading while individuals are incarcerated, the people who are in prison are already subjected to environments, where there are high rates of infectious diseases.[4] Both HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis C are of particular concern for issues regarding public health and therefore call for specific attention.
HIV/AIDS
At least 17% of people living with HIV/AIDS have been incarcerated at some point in their life.[4] The rate of contracting HIV is ten to one hundred times higher inside the prison system than in the outside world.[5] The incarcerated population is more susceptible to contracting the disease because they are exposed to more high-risk behavior within a state-penal system. In a Louisiana prison study, 242 inmates or 72.8% of male inmates had participated in sexual encounters with other men, where they did not always have access to proper protection. [4] Additionally, research on prisons nationwide displayed that there is a much greater proportion of individuals within prisons that developed AIDS through injection in comparison to the rest of the population with AIDS. The much larger population within incarcerated spaces that have the disease is a result of more people being sentenced to prison for drug-related offenses or known as a consequence of the war on drugs.[6][7] Since prisons divide the individuals by gender, the incarcerated populations experience different environments, where the rate of women contracting HIV is greater than men. [5]
Hepatitis C
While the majority of Hepatitis C, or HCV, infections occur outside of prison, the disease is still widely spread within the prison system as a result of drug injection.[8] In fact, according to one Rhode Island prison study, HCV infection was found in 23.1% of the male prison population.[9] Hepatitis C prevention proves to be more challenging than HIV prevention, though, because inmates partake in risky behaviors such as “front loading” and sharing spoons to prepare drugs.[3] The prevalence of these diseases within prisons are a concern because they pose a potential public health risk. When prisoners are released, they may continue the same high risk behavior they participated in while incarcerated, thereby increasing the chances of the disease spreading to outside communities.[9]
Preventative Measures
Approaches to preventing the spread of disease within prisons call for not only internal changes within correctional facilities, but also through external community support. Possible prevention techniques include vaccinations, selective testing, methadone treatments for drug addicts, access to sterile syringes and needles, having proper cleaning materials for syringes and needles, lowering the prison population, improving healthcare within prisons, increased availability of condoms, psychological therapy or counseling, or educative classes on drug use and sexual behavior for both inmates and staff members.[1] [2] [3] While the World Health Organization has endorsed these practices, only Vermont and Mississippi State Prisons in addition to Los Angeles, San Francisco, New York, Philadelphia and Washington County Jails have provided condoms to inmates. [10] However, others have argued against providing condoms because officials feel as though it promotes a sexual activity, which is marked as illegal within the prison system. This potential solution requires further research.[7] Some prisons already provide prevention techniques such as bleach tablets for cleaning, drug counseling, detoxification and drug behavior management, but these techniques are not fully effective.[8] Separating infected individuals from the rest of the prison population also does not prove effective because not all infected people test positive. This, therefore, promotes high-risk actions because there is a perceived lack of an infected population. While vaccination programs are accepted, they are not widely implemented. Substance abuse programs are also rare although HIV and HCV testing are widely available.[1] Because of the ineffectiveness of some prevention techniques, advocates push for alternative forms of rehabilitation for drug offenders in order to keep these potentially infected people outside of the prison system.[8] These techniques do not only apply to HIV and HCV prevention, but also address the various other diseases present within correctional facilities. Since prevention of infection diseases presents a major unsolved problem, public healthcare professionals advocate for a more inclusive and all encompassing approach. [1]
See also
- Prison Industrial Complex
- Incarceration in the United States
- War on Drugs
- List of U.S. state prisons
References
- ^ a b c d Weinbaum, Cindy M (2005). "Hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV in correctional population... : AIDS". AIDS: Official Journal of the International AIDS Society. 19: p S41–S46.
{{cite journal}}:|pages=has extra text (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ a b Simooya, Oscar O (2010). "Infections in Prison in Low and Middle Income Countries: Prevalence and Prevention Strategies". Open Infectious Diseases Journal. 4 (Special Issue): 33–37. doi:10.2174/1874279301004020033.
- ^ a b c STARK, K. (22 December 2005). "A syringe exchange programme in prison as prevention strategy against HIV infection and hepatitis B and C in Berlin, Germany". Epidemiology and Infection. 134 (4): 814. doi:10.1017/S0950268805005613.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c Arp III, William (2009). "Race, Incarceration, and HIV/AIDS in Louisiana: Risky Behavior Requires mandatory Testing". Race, Gender, & Class. 16 (1/2): 228–237.
- ^ a b Chandler, Cynthia (2003). "Death and dying in America: the prison industrial complex's impact on women's health". Berkeley Women's Law Journal. 18: 40.
- ^ Dean-Gaitor, Hazel D. (1999). "Epidemiology of AIDS in incarcerated persons in the United States, 1994-1996". AIDS. 13 (17): 429–2435. doi:10.1097/00002030-199912030-00015.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ a b Lynda, Doll (1996). "Improving HIV/AIDS prevention in prisons is good public health policy". American Journal of Public Health. 86 (9): 1201–1203. doi:10.2105/AJPH.86.9.1201. PMC 1380577. PMID 8806366.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c Champion, J. K.; Taylor, A; Hutchinson, S; Cameron, S; McMenamin, J; Mitchell, A; Goldberg, D (1 March 2004). "Incidence of Hepatitis C Virus Infection and Associated Risk Factors among Scottish Prison Inmates: A Cohort Study". American Journal of Epidemiology. 159 (5): 514–519. doi:10.1093/aje/kwh061. PMID 14977648.
- ^ a b Macalino, Grace E. (1 July 2004). "Prevalence and Incidence of HIV, Hepatitis B Virus, and Hepatitis C Virus Infections Among Males in Rhode Island Prisons". American Journal of Public Health. 94 (7): 1218–1223. doi:10.2105/AJPH.94.7.1218. PMC 1448424. PMID 15226146.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Braithwaite, Ronald L. (2003). "Male Prisoners and HIV Prevention: A Call for Action Ignored". American Journal of Public Health. 93 (5): 759–763. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.5.759. PMC 1447833. PMID 12721138.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)