View source for ǃKung languages

{{Short description|Kx'a dialect continuum spoken in southern Africa}}
{{distinguish|Ju language (Chadic)|Kung language (Cameroon)}}
{{use mdy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox language
|name=ǃKung
|altname=Ju
|nativename=ǃXun
|states=[[Namibia]], [[Angola]], [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]]
|ethnicity=[[ǃKung people|ǃKung]]
|speakers=All varieties: {{sigfig|77,070|2}}
|date=2015
|ref=e25
|familycolor=Khoisan
|fam1=[[Kxʼa languages|Kxʼa]]
|dia1=[[Sekele language|Northern]] (Sekele)
|dia2=[[Central ǃKung|Central]]
|dia3=[[Juǀʼhoan language|Southern]] (Juǀʼhoan)
|lc1=vaj|ld1=[[Sekele language|Northern ǃKung]]
|lc2=knw|ld2=[[Ekoka ǃKung]]
|lc3=ktz|ld3=[[Juǀʼhoan dialect|Southern ǃKung]]
|glotto=juku1256
|glottorefname=Ju-Kung
|notice = IPA
|script=[[Latin script|Latin]] with [[click consonant|click characters]]
}}
{{infobox ethnonym|root=|person=|people=[[ǃKung]]|language=[[ǃKung languages|ǃXun]]|country=}}

'''ǃKung''' {{IPAc-en|'|k|ʊ|ŋ}}<ref>{{MW|Kung}}</ref><ref>The {{angbr IPA|ǃ}} indicates an [[alveolar click]], which is not pronounced in English.</ref> {{respell|KUUNG}} ('''ǃXun'''), also known as '''Ju''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|u:}} {{respell|JOO}}), is a [[dialect continuum]] (language complex) spoken in [[Namibia]], [[Botswana]], and [[Angola]] by the [[ǃKung people]], constituting two or three languages. Together with the [[ǂʼAmkoe language]], ǃKung forms the [[Kxʼa languages|Kxʼa language family]]. ǃKung constituted one of the branches of the putative [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]] language family, and was called '''Northern Khoisan''' in that scenario, but the unity of Khoisan has never been demonstrated and is now regarded as spurious. Nonetheless, the anthropological term "Khoisan" has been retained as an umbrella term for click languages in general.<ref>{{harvnb|Haacke|2009}}</ref>

ǃKung is famous for its many [[click consonant|clicks]], such as the [[alveolar click|ǃ]] in its name, and has some of the most complex inventories of both [[consonant]]s and [[vowel]]s in the world. It also has [[tone (linguistics)|tone]] and [[nasalization]]. For a description, see [[Juǀʼhoan dialect|Juǀʼhoan]]. To pronounce ''ǃXuun'' (pronounced {{IPA-xx|ǃ͡χũː˦˥|}} in Western ǃKung/ǃXuun) one makes a [[alveolar click|click sound]] before the ''x'' sound (which is like a Scottish or German ''ch''), followed by a long [[nasal vowel|nasal ''u'' vowel]] with a high rising tone.{{efn|1=For phonology and tones, see list of ǃXun dialect names in {{harvtxt|Heine|Honken|2010}}.}}

==Names==
The term ''ǃKung'', or variants thereof, is typically used when considering the dialects to constitute a single language; ''Ju'' tends to be used when considering them as a small language family. ''ǃKung'' is also sometimes used for the northern/northwestern dialects, as opposed to the well documented ''Juǀʼhoan'' dialects in the south(east); however speakers of nearly all dialects call themselves ''ǃKung''.

The spellings ''ǃXun'' and ''ǃXuun'' seen in recent literature are related to the Juǀʼhoan form spelled ''ǃXʼu(u)n'' in the 1975 orthography, or ''ǃKu(u)n'' in current orthography. Additional spellings are ''ǃHu, ǃKhung, ǃKu, Kung, Qxü, ǃung, ǃXo, Xû, ǃXû, Xun, ǃXung, ǃXũũ, ǃXun, ʗhũ:'',<ref name=dok>{{harvnb|Doke|1926}}</ref> and additional spellings of ''Ju'' are ''Dzu, Juu, Zhu''.

==Speakers==
If the ǃKung dialects are counted together, they would make the third-most-populous click language after [[Khoekhoe language|Khoekhoe]] and [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]].  The most populous ǃKung variety, Juǀʼhoan, is perhaps tied for third place with [[Naro language|Naro]].

Estimates vary, but there are probably around 15,000 speakers. Counting is difficult because speakers are scattered on farms, interspersed with speakers of other languages, but {{harvtxt|Brenzinger|2011}} counts 9,000 in Namibia, 2,000 in Botswana, 3,700 in South Africa and 1,000 in Angola (down from perhaps 8,000 in 1975).

Until the mid–late twentieth century, the northern dialects were widespread in southern and central Angola. However, most ǃKung fled the [[Angolan Civil War]] to Namibia (primarily to the [[Caprivi Strip]]), where they were recruited into the South African Defence Force special forces against the Angolan Army and [[SWAPO]]. At the end of the [[South African Border War|Border War]], more than one thousand fighters and their families were relocated to [[Schmidtsdrift]] in South Africa amid uncertainty over their future in Namibia.<ref>{{harvnb|Suzman|2001}}</ref> After more than a decade living in precarious conditions, the post-Apartheid government bought and donated land for a permanent settlement at Platfontein, near Schmidtsdrift.<ref>{{harvnb|Robins|Madzudzo|Brenzinger|2001}}</ref>

Only Juǀʼhoan is written, and it is not sufficiently intelligible with the Northwestern dialects for the same literature to be used for both.

==Varieties==
The better-known ǃKung dialects are [[Juǀʼhoan dialect|Tsumkwe Juǀʼhoan]], [[Ekoka ǃKung]], [[Sekele language|ǃʼOǃKung]], and [[ǂKxʼauǁʼein]]. Scholars distinguish between eleven and fifteen dialects, but the boundaries are unclear. There is a clear distinction between North/Northwest vs South/Southeast, but also a diverse Central group that is poorly attested.

===Heine & Honken (2010)===
{{harvtxt|Heine|Honken|2010}} classify the 11 traditionally numbered dialects into three branches of what they consider a single language:

{{tree list}}
* '''ǃKung'''
** Northern–Western ǃXun
***[[Sekele dialect|Northern ǃXun]]
****(N1) Maligo (''ǃxuun, kúándò ǃxuun'' "Kwando ǃXuun"; SE Angola)
****(N2) ǃʼOǃKung (''ǃʼo ǃuŋ'' "Forest ǃXuun"; eastern C Angola)
***[[Ekoka ǃKung|Western ǃXun]]
****(W1) — (''ǃxūún, ǃʼālè ǃxòān'' "Valley ǃXuun"; Eenhana district, N Namibia)
****(W2) ǀʼAkhwe (''ǃxūún, ǀʼākhòè ǃxòān'' "Kwanyama ǃXuun"; Eenhana, N Namibia)
****(W3) Tsintsabis (''ǃxūún''; Tsintsabis, Tsumeb district, N Namibia)
***(K) Kavango ǃXuun (''ǃxūún'', known as ''dom ǃxūún'' "River ǃXuun" in Ekoka; Western Rundu district, N Namibia, & Angola adjacent)
** [[Central ǃKung|Central ǃXun]]
***(C1) Gaub (Tsumeb district, N Namibia)
***(C2) Neitsas (Grootfontein district, N Namibia)
***tentatively also the Tsintsabis, Leeunes and Mangetti (different from Mangetti Dune) dialects
** [[Juǀʼhoan dialect|Southeastern ǃXun]]
***(E1) Juǀʼhoan (''ju-ǀʼhoan(-si)''; Tsumkwe district, N Namibia, & Bots adjacent)
***(E2) Dikundu (''ǃxun, ju-ǀʼhoa(si)''; Dikundu, W Caprivi)
***(E3) [[ǂKxʼauǁʼein]] (''ju-ǀʼhoan(-si), ǃxun, ǂxʼāōǁʼàèn'' "Northern people"; Gobabis district, E Namibia)
{{tree list/end}}

{{harvtxt|Heine|König|2015|p=324}} state that speakers of all Northwestern dialects "understand one another to quite some extent" but that they do not understand any of the Southeastern dialects.

===Sands (2010)===
{{harvtxt|Sands|2010}} classifies ǃKung dialects into four clusters, with the first two being quite close:

{{tree list}}
* '''ǃKung'''
** '''[[Sekele language|Northern ǃKung]]''': Southern Angola, around the Cunene, Cubango, Cuito, and Cuando rivers, but with many refugees now in Namibia:
***ǃʼOǃKung
***Maligo
** '''[[Ekoka ǃKung|North-Central ǃKung]]''': Namibia, between the Ovambo River and the Angolan border, around the tributaries of the Okavango River east of Rundu to the [[Etosha pan|Etosha Pan]]:
***Tsintsabis
***Okongo
***Ovambo
***Mpunguvlei
***ǀʼAkhwe (Ekoka)
** '''[[Central ǃKung]]''': The area around [[Grootfontein]], Namibia, west of the central [[Omatako River]] and south of the [[Ovambo River]]
** '''[[Juǀʼhoan dialect|Southeastern ǃKung]]''': Botswana east of the [[Okavango Delta]], and northeast Namibia from near [[Windhoek]] to [[Rundu]], [[Gobabis]], and the [[Caprivi Strip]]:
***Tsumkwe
***Omatako
***Kameeldoring
***Epukiro.
{{tree list/end}}

[[ǂKxʼauǁʼein]] was too poorly attested to classify at the time.

===Snyman (1997)===
A preliminary classification of the !Xũũ and Žuǀ'hõasi dialects by Snyman (1997):<ref>Snyman, Jan Winston. 1997. A preliminary classification of the !Xũũ and Žuǀ'hõasi dialects. In Haacke, Wilfrid and Elderkin, Edward Derek (eds.), ''Namibian languages: reports and papers'', 21-106. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag; University of Namibia (UNAM).</ref>

{{tree list}}
* '''ǃKung'''
**'''Southern (Žuǀʼhõansi)'''
***'''[[Epukiro]] Žuǀʼhõansi''' is bounded by the Omuramba Otjozondjou, stretching along the Omuramba Epukiro and north of the Sandfontein Omuramba up to Ghanzi in Botswana.
***'''[[Tsumkwe]] Žuǀʼhõansi''' is spoken east of 20° longitude from the Omuramba Otjozondjou up to the Kaudom Omuramba and extending to Samagaigai in the west and 22° longitude in Botswana.
***'''[[Rundu]] Žuǀʼhõansi''' presumably occurs south of the Okavango river from Rupara south-eastward to Ncaute and then north of the Omuramba Kaudom.
***'''[[Omatako Constituency|Omatako]] Žuǀʼhõansi''' consists of a northern dialect probably stretching from Ncaute southwards up to ca. 100km South of Karakuwisa, and a southern dialect extending southwards to include the tributaries of the Omatako, viz. the Omambonde, Klein Omatako and Gunib. The dialects are probably spoken in an area about 40 km wide along the river. According to the map in Westhpal (1956), the upper reaches of the Gunib Omuramba as well as the Omuramba Otjozondjou, i.e. the area between Okozonduzu Omazera and Blignaut, was Haillom territory. This area roughly lies on the watershed between the Omatako and the Otjozondjou which served as a natural boundary between the Epukiro and Omatako Žuǀʼhõansi.
**'''Central (!Xũũ)'''
***'''[[Grootfontein]] !Xũũ''' is found in the district to the north-east, east and south-east of the town of Grootfontein.
***'''[[Tsintsabis]] !Xũũ''' is restricted to the North-eastern part of the Tsumeb district and adjacent areas in the western and eastern Mangetti.
***'''[[Okongo]] !Xũũ''' is found in the Okongo, Olokula, Ekoka and Otyolo area of Northeastern Owambo.
**'''Northern (!Xũũ)'''
***'''[[Mpungu]] !Xũũ''' occurs in the Tondoro and Mpungu area of the north-western Kavango and presumably in adjacent areas in Angola. This dialect clearly forms a transition from Okongo !Xũũ to the other dialects of the Northern dialect cluster. Cuando/Quito !Xũũ presumably belonged in the area between these rivers.
***'''[[Quilo River|Quilo]]/[[Cubango River|Cubango]] !Xũũ''' presumably belonged in the area between these rivers.
***'''[[Cubango River|Cubango]]/[[Kunene River|Cunene]] !Xũũ''' presumably belonged in the area between these rivers.
{{tree list/end}}

==Proto-language==<!---[[Proto-ǃKung]] redirects here--->
{{Infobox proto-language
| name             = Proto-ǃKung
| familycolor      = Khoisan
| ancestor         = 
| target          = ǃKung languages
}}
The ancestral language, Proto-Juu or Proto-ǃXuun, had five places of click articulation: [[Dental click|Dental]], [[alveolar click|alveolar]], [[palatal click|palatal]], [[lateral click|alveolar lateral]], and [[retroflex click|retroflex]] ({{IPA|*‼}}). The retroflex clicks have dropped out of Southeastern dialects such as Juǀʼhoan, but remain in Central ǃKung. In ǀʼAkhwe (Ekoka), the palatal click has become a [[alveolar click#"Fricated" alveolar clicks|fricated alveolar]].<ref>{{harvnb|Scott|Miller|Namaseb|Sands|2010}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Miller|Holliday|Howcroft|Phillips|2011}}</ref>

{| class=wikitable
! Proto-Juu
! {{IPA|*ǃ}} 'belly' !! {{IPA|*‼}} 'water' !! {{IPA|*ǂ}}
|-
! SE (Tsumkwe)
| {{IPA|ᶢǃű}} || {{IPA|ᶢǃű}} || {{IPA|ǂ}}
|-
! N (Okongo/ǀʼAkhwe)
| {{IPA|ᶢǃű}} || {{IPA|ᶢǁű}} || {{IPA|⨎}}
|-
! NW (Mangetti Dune)
| {{IPA|ᶢǃű}} || {{IPA|ᶢǁű}} || {{IPA|ǂ}}
|-
! C (Neitsas/Nurugas)
| {{IPA|ᶢǃú}} || {{IPA|ᶢ‼ú}} || {{IPA|ǂ}}
|}

==See also==
*[[Wiktionary:Appendix:!Kung word lists|ǃKung word lists]] (Wiktionary)

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite journal | last = Brenzinger | first = Matthias | year = 2011 | title = The twelve Modern Khoisan languages | editor-last1 = Witzlack-Makarevich | editor-last2 = Ernszt | editor-first2 = M | journal = Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium, Riezlern / Kleinwalsertal | series = Research in Khoisan Studies | volume = 29 | location = Cologne, Germany | publisher =  Rüdiger Köppe Verlag }}
* {{cite journal | last = Doke | first = Clement Martyn | title = The Phonetics of the Zulu Language | date = Jul 1926 | publisher = University of the Witwatersrand Press | location = Johannesburg, South Africa | journal = Bantu Studies | volume = 2 | issn = 0256-1751 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | last = Haacke | first = W.H.G. | editor-last1 = Brown | editor-first1 = Keith | editor-last2 = Ogilvie | editor-first2 = Sarah | encyclopedia = Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World | pages = 600–602 | publisher = Elsevier | location = Oxford, UK | year = 2009 | lccn = 2008934269 | isbn = 9780080877747 | title = Khoesaan Languages }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Heine | first1 = Bernd | last2 = Honken | first2 = Henry | year = 2010 | url = http://repository.tufs.ac.jp/bitstream/10108/57434/1/jaas079001_ful.pdf | title = The Kxʼa Family: A New Khoisan Genealogy | journal = [[Journal of Asian and African Studies]] | location = Tokyo, Japan | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181102140038/http://repository.tufs.ac.jp/bitstream/10108/57434/1/jaas079001_ful.pdf | archive-date = November 2, 2018 | issue = 79 | pages = 5–36 | url-status = dead }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Heine | first1 = Bernd | last2 = König | first2 = Christa | year = 2015 | title = The ǃXun Language: A Dialect Grammar of Northern Khoisan | isbn = 9783896458773| series = Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung, 33 | publisher = Rüdiger Köppe }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Miller | first1 = A.L. | last2 = Holliday | first2 = J. | last3 = Howcroft | first3 = D.M. | last4 = Phillips | first4 = S. | last5 = Smith | first5 = B. | last6 = Tsz-Hum | first6 = T. | last7 = Scott | first7 = A. | title = The Phonetics of the Modern-Day Reflexes of the Proto-Palatal Click in Juu Languages | journal = Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Khoisan Languages and Linguistics | year = 2011 }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Robins | first1 = Steven | last2 = Madzudzo | first2 = Elias | last3 = Brenzinger | first3 = Matthias | title = Regional Assessment of the Status of the San in Southern Africa — An Assessment of the Status of the San in South Africa, Angola, Zambia and Zimbabwe | date = Apr 2001 | publisher = Legal Assistance Centre (LAC) | location = Windhoek, Namibia | url = http://www.lac.org.na/projects/lead/Pdf/sansazz.pdf | access-date = Aug 31, 2017 | archive-date = July 2, 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170702072600/http://www.lac.org.na/projects/lead/Pdf/sansazz.pdf | volume = 2 | isbn = 99916-765-4-6 | url-status = dead }}
* {{cite journal | last = Sands | first = Bonny | year = 2010 | title = Juu Subgroups Based on Phonological Patterns | journal = Khoisian Language and Linguistics: The Riezlern Symposium 2003 | editor-last1 = Brenzinger | editor-first1 = Matthias | editor-last2 = König | editor-first2 = Christa | pages = 85–114 | publisher = Rüdiger Köppe | location = Cologne, Germany }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Scott | first1 = Abigail | last2 = Miller | first2 = Amanda | last3 = Namaseb | first3 = Levi | last4 = Sands | first4 = Bonny | last5 = Shah | first5 = Sheena | date = Jun 2, 2010 | title = Retroflex Clicks in Two Dialects of ǃXung | journal = University of Botswana, Department of African Languages }}
* {{cite book | last = Suzman | first = James | title = Regional Assessment of the Status of the San in Southern Africa – An Assessment of the Status of the San in Namibia | date = Apr 2001 | publisher = Legal Assistance Centre (LAC) | location = Windhoek, Namibia | url = http://www.lac.org.na/projects/lead/Pdf/sannami.pdf | access-date = Aug 31, 2017 | archive-date = April 27, 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180427012642/http://www.lac.org.na/projects/lead/Pdf/sannami.pdf | isbn = 99916-765-1-1 | volume = 4 | url-status = live }}

{{Khoisan}}
{{Languages of Angola}}
{{Languages of Namibia}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:ǃKung Languages}}
[[Category:Kx'a languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Angola]]
[[Category:Languages of Botswana]]
[[Category:Languages of Namibia]]
[[Category:Click languages]]