1978 Soviet nuclear tests
| 1978 | |
|---|---|
| Information | |
| Country | Soviet Union |
| Test site | Atyrau, Kazakhstan; Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan; Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan; Khanty-Mansi, Russia; Krasnoyarsk, Russia; NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia; Sakha, Russia; Sary-Uzen/Murzhik, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan |
| Period | 1978 |
| Number of tests | 31 |
| Test type | underground shaft, underground tunnel |
| Max. yield | 180 kilotonnes of TNT (750 TJ) |
| Test series chronology | |
The Soviet Union's 1978 nuclear test series[1] was a group of 31 nuclear tests conducted in 1978. These tests [note 1] followed the 1977 Soviet nuclear tests series and preceded the 1979 Soviet nuclear tests series.
According to an article that appeared in 2010 on the Russia state broadcaster RT, on November 17, 1978, the USSR detonated its first neutron bomb.[2] However this test detonation, if it indeed occurred on the date given, has no other known references to support this date.
| Name [note 2] | Date time (UT) | Local time zone [note 3][3] | Location [note 4] | Elevation + height [note 5] | Delivery, [note 6] Purpose [note 7] |
Device [note 8] | Yield [note 9] | Fallout [note 10] | References | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 481 | 19 March 1978 03:46:59.82 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Sary-Uzen/Murzhik, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 2691 49°48′22″N 78°07′01″E / 49.80621°N 78.11687°E | 460 m (1,510 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
13 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 482 - 1 | 26 March 1978 03:56:59.96 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 701 49°45′51″N 77°59′57″E / 49.7643°N 77.9993°E | 704 m (2,310 ft) - 260 m (850 ft) | underground tunnel, weapons development |
30 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 482 - 2 | 26 March 1978 03:57:00.0 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 701 49°45′51″N 77°59′57″E / 49.7643°N 77.9993°E | 704 m (2,310 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][4][6][7][8] | |||
| 483 - 1 | 22 April 1978 03:07:00.01 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 204 49°44′49″N 78°07′30″E / 49.7469°N 78.1251°E | 579 m (1,900 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
20 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 483 - 2 | 22 April 1978 03:07:00.0 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 204 49°44′49″N 78°07′30″E / 49.7469°N 78.1251°E | 579 m (1,900 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][4][6][7][8] | |||
| 483 - 3 | 22 April 1978 03:07:00.0 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 204 49°44′49″N 78°07′30″E / 49.7469°N 78.1251°E | 579 m (1,900 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][4][6][7][8] | |||
| 484 | 24 May 1978 03:07:00 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 185p 49°44′50″N 78°03′29″E / 49.74721°N 78.05809°E | 394 m (1,293 ft) + | underground tunnel, safety experiment |
1000 kg | [1][4][6][7][8] | |||
| 485 | 29 May 1978 04:56:59.85 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 133p 49°47′55″N 78°06′08″E / 49.7986°N 78.1022°E | 686 m (2,251 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapon effect |
3 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 486 | 2 June 1978 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 185-pp 49°44′54″N 78°03′36″E / 49.74828°N 78.06006°E | 394 m (1,293 ft) + | underground tunnel, safety experiment |
1000 kg | [1][4][6][7][8] | |||
| 487 | 11 June 1978 02:57:00.14 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1010 49°54′51″N 78°48′04″E / 49.91406°N 78.80121°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
58 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 488 | 5 July 1978 02:47:00.05 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1077 49°54′14″N 78°51′59″E / 49.90376°N 78.86647°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
87 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 489 - 1 | 28 July 1978 02:46:59.89 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 104 49°44′56″N 78°05′21″E / 49.7488°N 78.0893°E | 623 m (2,044 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
60 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 489 - 2 | 28 July 1978 02:46:59.9 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 104 49°44′56″N 78°05′21″E / 49.7488°N 78.0893°E | 623 m (2,044 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][4][6][7][8] | |||
| 489 - 3 | 28 July 1978 02:46:59.9 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 104 49°44′56″N 78°05′21″E / 49.7488°N 78.0893°E | 623 m (2,044 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][4][6][7][8] | |||
| 489 - 4 | 28 July 1978 02:46:59.9 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 104 49°44′56″N 78°05′21″E / 49.7488°N 78.0893°E | 623 m (2,044 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][4][6][7][8] | |||
| 489 - 5 | 28 July 1978 02:46:59.9 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 104 49°44′56″N 78°05′21″E / 49.7488°N 78.0893°E | 623 m (2,044 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][4][6][7][8] | |||
| 490 Kraton 4 (Craton) | 9 August 1978 18:00:00.8 | YAKT (9 hrs) |
Sakha, Russia: KR-4 63°40′41″N 125°31′19″E / 63.678°N 125.522°E | - 560 m (1,840 ft) | underground shaft, seismic sounding |
22 kt | [1][5][6][7][8] | Seismic probing program. | ||
| 491 - 1 | 10 August 1978 07:59:57.93 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-18 73°17′28″N 54°52′59″E / 73.291°N 54.883°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
180 kt | [1][5][6][7][9] | |||
| 491 - 2 | 10 August 1978 07:59:57.9 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-18 73°17′28″N 54°52′59″E / 73.291°N 54.883°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][6][7][8][10] | |||
| 491 - 3 | 10 August 1978 07:59:57.9 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-18 73°17′28″N 54°52′59″E / 73.291°N 54.883°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][6][7][8][10] | |||
| 491 - 4 | 10 August 1978 07:59:57.9 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-18 73°17′28″N 54°52′59″E / 73.291°N 54.883°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][6][7][8][10] | |||
| 491 - 5 | 10 August 1978 07:59:57.9 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-18 73°17′28″N 54°52′59″E / 73.291°N 54.883°E | 100 m (330 ft) - 500 m (1,600 ft) | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | Venting detected on site, 70 Ci (2,600 GBq) | [1][6][7][8][10] | ||
| 491 - 6 | 10 August 1978 07:59:57.9 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-18 73°17′28″N 54°52′59″E / 73.291°N 54.883°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | underground tunnel, fundamental science |
unknown yield | [1][6][7][8][10] | |||
| 492 Kraton 3 (Craton) | 24 August 1978 18:00:00.4 | YAKT (9 hrs) |
Sakha, Russia: KR-3 65°55′30″N 112°20′17″E / 65.925°N 112.338°E | - 577 m (1,893 ft) | underground shaft, seismic sounding |
22 kt | Venting detected | [1][5][6][7][8] | ||
| 493 - 1 | 29 August 1978 02:36:59.95 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 107 49°48′27″N 78°06′33″E / 49.8074°N 78.1091°E | 770 m (2,530 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
14 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 493 - 2 | 29 August 1978 02:37:00.0 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 107 49°48′27″N 78°06′33″E / 49.8074°N 78.1091°E | 770 m (2,530 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][4][6][7][8] | |||
| 493 - 3 | 29 August 1978 02:37:00.0 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 107 49°48′27″N 78°06′33″E / 49.8074°N 78.1091°E | 770 m (2,530 ft) + | underground tunnel, safety experiment |
1000 kg | [1][4][6][7][8] | |||
| 494 | 29 August 1978 02:37:08.75 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1228 50°00′35″N 78°58′00″E / 50.00965°N 78.96669°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
119 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 495 Galit A2.4 (Halite) | 12 September 1978 04:59:58.5 | SHET (5 hrs) |
Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-II-5 47°54′32″N 47°54′43″E / 47.909°N 47.912°E | - 600 m (2,000 ft) | underground shaft, industrial |
80 t | [1][6][7][8][10] | Create reservoirs for gas storage. A fizzle. | ||
| 496 | 15 September 1978 02:36:59.97 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1211 49°55′46″N 78°51′41″E / 49.92944°N 78.8614°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
81 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 497 | 20 September 1978 05:03:00.0 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 605p 49°47′36″N 78°08′41″E / 49.7934°N 78.1447°E | 660 m (2,170 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapon effect |
1.1 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 498 Kraton 2 (Craton) | 21 September 1978 15:00:00.2 | KRAT (7 hrs) |
Krasnoyarsk, Russia: KR-2 66°35′53″N 86°12′36″E / 66.598°N 86.21°E | - 890 m (2,920 ft) | underground shaft, seismic sounding |
15 kt | [1][5][6][7][8] | Seismic probing program. | ||
| 499 - 1 | 27 September 1978 02:04:58.6 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-19 73°20′56″N 54°40′34″E / 73.349°N 54.676°E | 100 m (330 ft) - 350 m (1,150 ft) | underground tunnel, weapons development |
60 kt | [1][5][6][7][9] | |||
| 499 - 2 | 27 September 1978 02:04:58.6 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-19 73°20′56″N 54°40′34″E / 73.349°N 54.676°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][6][7][8][10] | |||
| 499 - 3 | 27 September 1978 02:04:58.6 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-19 73°20′56″N 54°40′34″E / 73.349°N 54.676°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][6][7][8][10] | |||
| 499 - 4 | 27 September 1978 02:04:58.6 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-19 73°20′56″N 54°40′34″E / 73.349°N 54.676°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][6][7][8][10] | |||
| 499 - 5 | 27 September 1978 02:04:58.6 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-19 73°20′56″N 54°40′34″E / 73.349°N 54.676°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][6][7][8][10] | |||
| 499 - 6 | 27 September 1978 02:04:58.6 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-19 73°20′56″N 54°40′34″E / 73.349°N 54.676°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][6][7][8][10] | |||
| 499 - 7 | 27 September 1978 02:04:58.6 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-19 73°20′56″N 54°40′34″E / 73.349°N 54.676°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | underground tunnel, safety experiment |
1000 kg | [1][6][7][8][10] | |||
| 500 Vyatka (Neva) | 8 October 1978 00:00:?? | YAKT (9 hrs) |
Sakha, Russia: 43 61°33′N 112°51′E / 61.55°N 112.85°E | - 1,545 m (5,069 ft) | underground shaft, oil stimulation |
15 kt | [1][5][6][7][8] | |||
| 501 | 15 October 1978 05:37:00.14 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 200ASM 49°44′22″N 78°06′46″E / 49.7395°N 78.1127°E | 645 m (2,116 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapon effect |
12 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 502 Galit A7 (Halite) - 1 | 17 October 1978 04:59:59.1 | SHET (5 hrs) |
Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-VII 47°50′48″N 48°07′14″E / 47.84661°N 48.12042°E | - 1,040 m (3,410 ft) | underground shaft, cavity excavation |
56 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | Create reservoirs for gas storage. | ||
| 502 Galit A7 (Halite) - 2 | 17 October 1978 04:59:59.1 | SHET (5 hrs) |
Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-VII 47°50′48″N 48°07′14″E / 47.84661°N 48.12042°E | + | underground shaft, cavity excavation |
18 kt | [1][4][6][7][8] | Create reservoirs for gas storage. | ||
| 503 Kraton 1 (Craton) | 17 October 1978 14:00:00.2 | SVET (5 hrs) |
Khanty-Mansi, Russia: KR-1 63°11′06″N 63°25′55″E / 63.185°N 63.432°E | - 593 m (1,946 ft) | underground shaft, seismic sounding |
22 kt | [1][5][6][7][8] | Seismic probing program. | ||
| 504 | 31 October 1978 04:17:00.19 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 194 49°47′15″N 78°05′51″E / 49.7875°N 78.0974°E | 638 m (2,093 ft) + | underground tunnel, fundamental science |
16 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 505 - 1 | 4 November 1978 05:05:59.86 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1302 50°02′49″N 78°56′47″E / 50.04706°N 78.94626°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
44 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 505 - 2 | 4 November 1978 05:05:59.9 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1302 50°02′30″N 78°56′50″E / 50.04167°N 78.94722°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][4][6][7][11] | |||
| 506 - 1 | 29 November 1978 04:33:00.17 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1222 49°57′17″N 78°47′38″E / 49.95472°N 78.79395°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
101 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 506 - 2 | 29 November 1978 04:33:00.2 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1222 49°57′17″N 78°47′38″E / 49.95472°N 78.79395°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][4][6][7][8] | |||
| 507 | 29 November 1978 04:33:04.99 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 162 49°46′57″N 78°00′26″E / 49.7826°N 78.0073°E | 750 m (2,460 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
110 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 508 Galit A2.5 (Halite) | 30 November 1978 07:59:59.1 | SHET (5 hrs) |
Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-II-6 47°54′32″N 47°54′43″E / 47.909°N 47.912°E | - 600 m (2,000 ft) | underground shaft, industrial |
6 t | [1][6][7][8][10] | Create reservoirs for gas storage. A fizzle. | ||
| 509 | 14 December 1978 04:43:00.03 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 113p 49°48′22″N 78°06′12″E / 49.8061°N 78.1034°E | 768 m (2,520 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
4 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 510 Galit A9 (Halite) | 18 December 1978 07:59:58.5 | SHET (5 hrs) |
Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-IX 47°51′25″N 48°09′39″E / 47.85689°N 48.16091°E | - 630 m (2,070 ft) | underground shaft, cavity excavation |
103 kt | [1][5][6][7][8] | Create reservoirs for gas storage. | ||
| 511 - 1 | 20 December 1978 04:33:00.04 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 803p 49°48′39″N 78°03′15″E / 49.81083°N 78.05417°E | 722 m (2,369 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
3.5 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 511 - 2 | 20 December 1978 04:33:00.0 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 803p 49°48′39″N 78°03′15″E / 49.81083°N 78.05417°E | 722 m (2,369 ft) + | underground tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][4][6][7][8] |
- ^ A bomb test may be a salvo test, defined as two or more explosions "where a period of time between successive individual explosions does not exceed 5 seconds and where the burial points of all explosive devices can be connected by segments of straight lines, each of them connecting two burial points and does not exceed 40 kilometers in length". Mikhailov, V. N., Editor in Chief. "Catalog of World Wide Nuclear Testing". Begell-Atom, LLC.
{{cite journal}}:|first=has generic name (help); Cite journal requires|journal=(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ The US, France and Great Britain have code-named their test events, while the USSR and China did not, and therefore have only test numbers (with some exceptions – Soviet peaceful explosions were named). Word translations into English in parentheses unless the name is a proper noun. A dash followed by a number indicates a member of a salvo event. The US also sometimes named the individual explosions in such a salvo test, which results in "name1 – 1(with name2)". If test is canceled or aborted, then the row data like date and location discloses the intended plans, where known.
- ^ To convert the UT time into standard local, add the number of hours in parentheses to the UT time; for local daylight saving time, add one additional hour. If the result is earlier than 00:00, add 24 hours and subtract 1 from the day; if it is 24:00 or later, subtract 24 hours and add 1 to the day. All historical timezone data are derived from here:
- ^ Rough place name and a latitude/longitude reference; for rocket-carried tests, the launch location is specified before the detonation location, if known. Some locations are extremely accurate; others (like airdrops and space blasts) may be quite inaccurate. "~" indicates a likely pro-forma rough location, shared with other tests in that same area.
- ^ Elevation is the ground level at the point directly below the explosion relative to sea level; height is the additional distance added or subtracted by tower, balloon, shaft, tunnel, air drop or other contrivance. For rocket bursts the ground level is "N/A". In some cases it is not clear if the height is absolute or relative to ground, for example, Plumbbob/John. No number or units indicates the value is unknown, while "0" means zero. Sorting on this column is by elevation and height added together.
- ^ Atmospheric, airdrop, balloon, gun, cruise missile, rocket, surface, tower, and barge are all disallowed by the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Sealed shaft and tunnel are underground, and remained useful under the PTBT. Intentional cratering tests are borderline; they occurred under the treaty, were sometimes protested, and generally overlooked if the test was declared to be a peaceful use.
- ^ Include weapons development, weapon effects, safety test, transport safety test, war, science, joint verification and industrial/peaceful, which may be further broken down.
- ^ Designations for test items where known, "?" indicates some uncertainty about the preceding value, nicknames for particular devices in quotes. This category of information is often not officially disclosed.
- ^ Estimated energy yield in tons, kilotons, and megatons. A ton of TNT equivalent is defined as 4.184 gigajoules (1 gigacalorie).
- ^ Radioactive emission to the atmosphere aside from prompt neutrons, where known. The measured species is only iodine-131 if mentioned, otherwise it is all species. No entry means unknown, probably none if underground and "all" if not; otherwise notation for whether measured on the site only or off the site, where known, and the measured amount of radioactivity released.
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd Yang, Xiaoping; North, Robert; Romney, Carl (August 2000). CMR Nuclear Explosion Database (Revision 3) (Technical report). SMDC Monitoring Research.
- ^ "The Soviet neutron bomb at 30. March 07 2010. RT".
- ^ "Timezone Historical Database". iana.com. Retrieved March 8, 2014.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Khalturin, Vitaly I.; Rautian, Tatyana G.; Richards, Paul G. (2000). "Chemical explosions during 1961-1989 on the Semipalatinsk Test Site, Kazakhstan" (PDF). Pure and Applied Geophysics. 158: 143–171. doi:10.1007/pl00001153. Retrieved December 13, 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Cochran, Thomas B.; Arkin, William M.; Norris, Robert S.; Sands, Jeffrey I. Nuclear Weapons Databook Vol. IV: Soviet Nuclear Weapons. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc Podvig, Pavel, ed. (2001). Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Retrieved January 9, 2014.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc USSR Nuclear Weapons Tests and Peaceful Nuclear Explosions 1949 through 1990. Sarov, Russia: RFNC-VNIIEF. 1996. The official Russian list of Soviet tests.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Nuclear explosions in the USSR: The North Test Site reference material, version 4 (PDF) (Technical report). IAEA Dept. of Nuclear Safety and Security. December 1, 2004. Retrieved December 13, 2013.
- ^ a b Kim, Won-Young; Richards, Paul G.; Andrushkin, Vitaly; Ovtchinnikov, Vladimir (April 1, 2001). Borovoye digital seismogram archive for underground nuclear tests during 1966-1996 (PDF) (Technical report). LDEO. Retrieved December 13, 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Andrushkin, Vitaly V.; Leith, William (September 1, 2001). The containment of Soviet underground nuclear explosions (PDF) (Open File Report 01-312). USGS. Retrieved December 13, 2013.
- ^ Thurber, Clifford; Trabant, Chad; Haslinger, Florian; Hartog, Renate (2001). Nuclear explosion locations at the Balapan, Kazakhstan, nuclear test site: the effects of high-precision arrival times and three-dimensional structure. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors (Technical report). Vol. 123. pp. 283–301. doi:10.1016/s0031-9201(00)00215-6. Retrieved December 13, 2013.