Symphytum
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (May 2019) |
| Symphytum | |
|---|---|
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| Symphytum caucasicum | |
Scientific classification 
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| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Asterids |
| Order: | Boraginales |
| Family: | Boraginaceae |
| Subfamily: | Boraginoideae |
| Genus: | Symphytum L. |
| Type species | |
| Symphytum officinale L.
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| Species | |
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See text. | |
Symphytum is a genus of flowering plants in the borage family, Boraginaceae. There are up to 35 species,[1] known by the common name comfrey (pronounced /ˈkʌmfri/). Some species and hybrids, particularly S. officinale and S. × uplandicum, are used in gardening and herbal medicine. They are not to be confused with Cynoglossum virginianum, known as wild comfrey, another member of the borage family.[2]
Species
Species include:
- Symphytum asperum – prickly comfrey, rough comfrey
- Symphytum bulbosum – bulbous comfrey
- Symphytum caucasicum – Caucasian comfrey
- Symphytum ibericum – creeping comfrey, Iberian comfrey[3]
- Symphytum officinale – comfrey
- Symphytum orientale – white comfrey
- Symphytum tauricum – Crimean comfrey
- Symphytum tuberosum – tuberous comfrey
- Symphytum × uplandicum (S. asperum × S. officinale, synonym: S. peregrinum) – Russian comfrey, healing herb, blackwort, bruisewort, wallwort, gum plant
Cultivation
| This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2018) |
The Russian comfrey 'Bocking 14' cultivar was developed during the 1950s by Lawrence D Hills, the founder of the Henry Doubleday Research Association (the organic gardening organisation itself named after the Quaker pioneer who first introduced Russian comfrey into Britain in the nineteenth century) following trials at Bocking, near Braintree.
Propagation
Bocking 14 is sterile, and therefore will not set seed (one of its advantages over other cultivars as it will not spread out of control), thus is propagated from root cuttings. The gardener can produce "offsets" from mature, strongly growing plants by driving a spade horizontally through the leaf clumps about 7 cm (2.8 in) below the soil surface. This removes the crown, which can then be split into pieces. The original plant will quickly recover, and each piece can be replanted with the growing points just below the soil surface, and will quickly grow into new plants. Offsets can also be purchased by mail order from specialist nurseries in order to initially build up a stock of plants.[4]
Phytochemistry, folk medicine, and toxicity
Folk medicine names for comfrey include knitbone, boneset and the derivation of its Latin name Symphytum (from the Greek symphis, meaning growing together of bones, and phyton, a plant), referring to its ancient uses. Similarly the common French name is consoude, meaning to weld together. The tradition in different cultures and languages suggest a common belief in its usefulness for mending bones.
Comfrey contains mixed phytochemicals in varying amounts, including allantoin, mucilage, saponins, tannins, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, inulin, and proteins, among others.[5] Liver toxicity is associated with consuming this plant or its extracts.[5] In modern herbalism, comfrey is most commonly used topically.[5][6][7]
In 2001, the United States Food and Drug Administration issued a ban of comfrey products marketed for internal use, and a warning label for those intended for external use.[8][9] Comfrey should not be used during pregnancy and lactation, in infants, and in people with liver, kidney, or vascular diseases.[5][10]
References
- ^ Miranda, Kimberley (9 July 2010). "Symphytum". hortweek.com. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
- ^ USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Cynoglossum virginianum". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 2018-11-20.
- ^ "Symphytum ibericum". rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
- ^ Teynor, Putnam, Doll, Kelling, Oelke, Undersander, and Oplinger. "Comfrey". Alternative Field Crops Manual. University of Wisconsin, Extension, Cooperative-Extension. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d "Comfrey". Drugs.com. 17 July 2017. Retrieved 22 May 2018.
- ^ Miskelly, FG; Goodyer, LI (1992). "Hepatic and pulmonary complications of herbal medicines". Postgrad Med J. 68 (805): 935–936. doi:10.1136/pgmj.68.805.935. PMC 2399473. PMID 1494521.
- ^ Miller, LG (1998). "Herbal medicinals: selected clinical considerations focusing on known or potential drug-herb interactions" (PDF). Arch Intern Med. 158 (20): 2200–2211. doi:10.1001/archinte.158.20.2200. PMID 9818800.
- ^ "FDA/CFSAN – FDA Advises Dietary Supplement Manufacturers to Remove Comfrey Products From the Market". Retrieved 2007-06-01.
- ^ Koll, R; Klingenburg, S (2002). "herapeutic characteristance and tolerance of topical comfrey preparations. Results of an observational study of patients". Fortschr Med Orig. 120 (1): 1–9. PMID 14518351.
- ^ Yeong M.L.; Swinburn, Boyd; Kennedy, Mark; Nicholson, Gordon; et al. (1990). "Hepatic veno-occlusive disease associated with comfrey ingestion". Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 5 (2): 211–214. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1746.1990.tb01827.x. PMID 2103401.