The fundamental theorem of calculus is the basic result in integral calculus in one dimension, and a primal "integral theorem". An antiderivative of a function can be used to evaluate a definite integral over an interval as a signed combination of the antiderivative at the endpoints. A corollary is that if the derivative of a function is zero, the function is constant.
In Les méthodes nouvelles de la mécanique céleste, he introduces a version of Stokes' theorem in n dimensions using what is essentially differential form notation.[4]
The situation at the end of the 19th century is that a geometric form of the fundamental theorem of calculus is available, if everything was smooth enough when rigour is required, and in Euclidean space of n dimensions.
The result corresponding to setting the derivative equal to zero is to apply it to closed forms, and as such is "mathematical folklore". It is in the nature of a remark that there are integral theorems for submanifolds linked by cobordism. The analogue of the theorem on derivative zero would be for submanifolds and that jointly form the boundary of a manifold N, and a form defined on N with . Then the integrals and of over the are equal. The signed sum seen in the case of a boundary of dimension 0 reflects the need to use orientations on the manifolds, to define integrals.
The vector calculus of low dimensions is given a place in general tensor calculus, in all dimensions, using differential forms and the Hodge star operator. The codifferential adjoint to the exterior derivative is the general form of divergence operator. Closed forms are dual to forms of divergence 0.[5]
Publishing in full in 1947, Pontryagin founded a new theory of cobordism with the result that a closed manifold that is a boundary has vanishing Stiefel-Whitney numbers. From the folklore Stokes's theorem corollary, cobordism classes of submanifolds are invariant for the integration of closed differential forms; the introduction of algebraic invariants gives the opening for computing with the equivalence relation as something intrinsic.[7]
The Steenrod problem. Stated as Problem 25 in a list by Eilenberg compiled in 1946, it asks, given an integral homology class in degree n of a simplicial complex, is it the image by a continuous mapping of the fundamental class of an oriented manifold of dimension n? The preceding question asks for the spherical homology classes to be characterised. The following question asks for a criterion from algebraic topology for an orientable manifold to be a boundary.[8]
Formal definition of cobordism of oriented manifolds, as an equivalence relation.[9] Thom computed, as a ring under disjoint union and cartesian product, the cobordism ring of unoriented smooth manifolds; and introduced the ring of oriented smooth manifolds.[10] is a polynomial algebra over the field with two elements, with a single generator in each degree, except degrees one less than a power of 2.[1]
1954
René Thom
In modern notation, Thom contributed to the Steenrod problem, by means of a homomorphism , the Thom homomorphism.[11] The Thom space construction M reduced the theory to the study of mappings in cohomology .[12]
^ abVictor J. Katz, The History of Stokes' Theorem, Mathematics Magazine Vol. 52, No. 3 (May, 1979), pp. 146–156, at p. 154. Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the Mathematical Association of America JSTOR2690275
^Society, Canadian Mathematical (1971). Canadian Mathematical Bulletin. Canadian Mathematical Society. p. 289. Retrieved 6 July 2018.
^Samuel Eilenberg, On the Problems of Topology, Annals of Mathematics
Second Series, Vol. 50, No. 2 (Apr., 1949), pp. 247–260, at p. 257. Published by: Mathematics Department, Princeton University JSTOR1969448