Ch'oe U

In this Korean name, the family name is Ch'oe.

Ch'oe U 최우
Military Leader of Goryeo
Imperial Guardian
In office 1219–1249
Monarch	Gojong of Goryeo
Preceded by	Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn
Succeeded by	Ch'oe Hang
Personal details
Born	1166 Kaesong, Kingdom of Goryeo (currently Kaesong, North Korea)
Died	10 December 1249
Spouse(s)	Lady Chŏng Lady Tae
Children	Lady Ch'oe Choi Man-jong Ch'oe Hang
Parent	Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn (father)
Relatives	Kim Yak-sŏn (son-in-law)

Ch'oe U
Hangul	최우
Hanja	崔瑀
Revised Romanization	Choe U
McCune–Reischauer	Ch'oe U

Ch'oe U (Korean: 최우; Hanja: 崔瑀; 1166 – 10 December 1249), also known as Ch'oe Yi (최이; 崔怡),

was a military ruler and official during the later Goryeo period, serving in various positions such as Chamjijeongsa (참지정사), Ibyeongbusangseo (이병부상서), and Pan-eosadaesa (판어사대사). Choe U’s posthumous title was Gwangnyeol (匡烈). He was a traditional figure of the Goryeo period and a military ruler. His exact birth year is unknown, but he died in 1249 (the 36th year of King Gojong's reign). His hometown was Uibong (牛峰), now known as Gimcheon in Hwanghae Province. Choe U (崔瑀) was the son of Choe Chungheon (崔忠獻). After Choe Chungheon died in 1219 (the 6th year of King Gojong's reign), Choe U ruled the Choe military regime until 1249 (the 36th year of King Gojong's reign), becoming the second ruler of the Choe family’s military government. His first name was Choe U, but he later changed it to Choe Yi (崔怡). It is unknown when he changed his name. Both names appear in the "History of Goryeo" (Goryeosa), but he is listed as Choe Yi in the biographies section. For convenience, this text will refer to him as Choe U. During his rule, Goryeo faced many hardships, including the Mongol invasion of Korea, which led to the relocation of the capital from Gaegyeong to Ganghwa Island.

Early Life

Choe U was the eldest son of Choe Chungheon, who founded the Choe military regime. Choe Chungheon had five sons and one daughter from three wives. Choe U was born to the first wife, Song Cheong (宋淸). His full brother, Choe Hyang (崔珦), was a rival for succession but was suppressed throughout Choe U's rule and eventually eliminated in 1230 (the 17th year of King Gojong's reign) after a failed rebellion.

The exact year of Choe U's birth is not recorded, but given that Choe Chungheon was born in 1149 (the 3rd year of King Uijong's reign), Choe U was likely born around the time of the military coup in 1170. This would make Choe U in his twenties when Choe Chungheon seized power in 1196 (the 26th year of King Myeongjong's reign). There is no record of Choe U’s role in his father's coup. He first appears in historical documents in 1202 (the 5th year of King Sinjong's reign) when a rebellion broke out in Gyeongju, and Choe Chungheon and Choe U inspected the departing troops. There is little notable about Choe U's activities before his father's death. Records indicate that in 1208 (the 4th year of King Huijong's reign), the king temporarily resided at Choe Chungheon's residence and watched the royal guards play polo there. Choe U did not engage in any significant political activities during this time. However, as Choe Chungheon's power solidified, Choe U commanded many private soldiers. Choe U's soldiers practiced combat with flags and drums from Seonjukkyo to Sunginmun when the Khitan invaded, indicating his preparedness to maintain power.

A noteworthy fact about Choe U is that he was regarded as one of the finest calligraphers of his time. Yi Gyubo (李奎報) considered him one of the "Four Masters" alongside Kim Saeng (金生) of Silla, Tan Yeon (坦然), and Yu Sin (柳伸) of Goryeo. King Huijong even requested Choe U to write the screen texts for Seongyeongjeon and Daegwanjeon, where envoys from the Jin Dynasty were received. This suggests that Choe U had uncommon scholarly qualities among military rulers.

Rise to Power

In 1219 (the 6th year of King Gojong's reign), Choe Chungheon passed away. He had already designated his eldest son, Choe U, as his successor. Near death, Choe Chungheon secretly summoned Choe U and warned him, "If my illness does not improve, trouble may arise in the family, so do not come again." Choe U used his illness as an excuse to have his son-in-law, Kim Yak-seon (金若先), care for his father while he stayed away.

Choe Chungheon’s intuition was correct. His four closest aides, Choe Jun-mun (崔俊文), Ji Yun-sim (池允深), Yu Song-jeol (柳松節), and Kim Deok-myeong (金德明), feared for their fate under Choe U and wanted Choe Hyang to succeed instead. They plotted to kill Choe U when he visited his father, repeatedly sending for him. However, Choe U, heeding his father's warning, did not appear. Kim Deok-myeong eventually betrayed the plot, informing Choe U, and the conspiracy failed. Choe U exiled the other three conspirators and killed Choe Jun-mun during his exile.

A few days later, Choe Chungheon died. Choe U succeeded him, gaining control of Goryeo’s government. He first presented the gold, silver, and precious items accumulated by his father to the king. He returned the lands and enslaved people seized by force to their original owners, garnering public support. He then systematically removed critical figures from his father’s administration, including Geum Ui (琴儀), Jeong Bang-bo (鄭邦輔), and Mun Yu-pil (文惟弼), under the pretext of eradicating corruption. Thus, Choe U fully consolidated his power.

Dictator

Choe U was the first person to inherit the position of ruler within the Choe military regime, approximately 50 years after its establishment. Unlike others who wielded power but lived in constant fear and rarely enjoyed their entire lifespan, Choe U began his era on the solid foundation laid by his father, Choe Chungheon. Consequently, the power and honor he enjoyed were no less than his father's.

When Choe U ascended to power in 1219 (the 6th year of King Gojong's reign), his official position was merely a third-rank vice minister of the Chancellery (樞密院副使). By the end of the following year, he had been promoted to second-rank vice-chancellor (參知政事). He concurrently held third-rank positions in the Ministry of Personnel (吏部) and the Ministry of War (兵部), as well as the head of the Censorate (判御史臺事), which was responsible for the inspection of officials. Although he monopolized these critical positions, several officials were still above him in the Goryeo bureaucratic hierarchy. Remarkably, despite holding exclusive power for almost 30 years after that, these were his last official positions, signifying that his authority was established independently of the formal bureaucratic structure.

In 1221, he became Chamjijeongsa (參知政事), Minister of Personnel and Military Affairs (吏兵部尙書), and Chief of the Censorate (判御史臺事), thereby solidifying his position as ruler. In preparation for the Mongol invasion, he ordered the construction of fortresses in strategic locations like Uiju (宜州, now Deokwon in South Hamgyong Province), Hwaju (和州, now Yeongheung in South Hamgyong Province), and Cheol-gwan (鐵關, now Cheolnyeong).

In 1223, he contributed over 300 silver bottles and 2,000 seok of rice, mobilized his private soldiers to repair the outer walls of Gaeseong, and created a 13-story pagoda and flower vases with 200 geun of gold, which he enshrined at Heungwangsa Temple (興王寺).

In 1225, he established the Jeongbang (政房) at his private residence to handle personnel matters of civil and military officials. In this Jeongbang, personnel appointments were decided and written down in a register, which was then submitted to the king for approval. In 1227, he set up the Seobang (書房) at his residence, where he enlisted renowned scholars to serve in three shifts. The Seobang and Tobang (都房) formed the dual pillars of the Choe family's security apparatus. He inherited and expanded his father's Dobang, reorganizing it into the Inner and Outer Dobang. The Inner Dobang guarded Choe U and his residence, while the Outer Dobang protected his relatives and external affairs. In 1228, he was bestowed the title of Odae Jingu Gongsin (鼇戴鎭國功臣).

In 1229 (the 16th year of King Gojong's reign), he forcibly confiscated over a hundred neighboring houses to create a significant polo ground. The field, several hundred steps long and as flat as a chessboard, continued to expand as he demolished more houses, eventually displacing hundreds of families. He often watched his Tobang and Mabeolcho (馬別抄) play polo there for five to six days while hosting banquets for officials and elders. The Mabeolcho was a cavalry unit created by Choe U that served as the Choe family's private guards and ceremonial troops. Choe U also established the Jeongbang (政房) at his residence to handle governmental appointments and organized the Yabyeolcho (夜別抄) to patrol at night and suppress thieves. This Yabyeolcho later expanded and reorganized into the Sambyeolcho (三別抄), which served as police and military units for the Choe regime.

In 1231, upon the death of his wife, Lady Jeong (鄭氏), her funeral followed the precedent set by Queen Sunduk (順德王后), the consort of King Yejong (睿宗). The king granted 70 bolts of silk and conducted her funeral with the honors befitting a queen. She was posthumously honored as Byeonhan Gukdaebuin (卞韓國大夫人) and given the posthumous title Gyeonghye (敬惠). The extravagance displayed by officials competing to offer lavish tributes caused a significant rise in market prices.

Mongol Invasions

In 1232, in response to the Mongol invasions, he fortified strategic locations and petitioned the king to move the capital to Ganghwa Island to resist the Mongols. He then moved his household goods to Ganghwa using 100 carts and helped the people of Gaeseong flee to Ganghwa. He also relocated the people of various provinces to mountain fortresses and islands, ultimately persuading the king to relocate the capital.

In 1234 (the 21st year of King Gojong's reign), the king conferred the Marquis Jin Yang (晋陽侯) title for relocating the capital. He established a fief for him, building a private estate and planting pines and cypresses over several miles. Eight years later, his title was elevated to Duke (公). In 1242, his title was elevated to Jin Yang-gong (晉陽公).

In 1243, he renovated the Gukjagam (國子監) and donated 300 seok of rice to the Yanghyeon-go (養賢庫) for scholarships. He also used his private funds to initiate the second carving of the Tripitaka Koreana after its destruction in Ganghwa, completed in 1251, two years after his death.

Succession

Choe U had three primary wives, but none bore him sons. His two sons were born to his concubine, Seo Ryeonbang (瑞蓮房). Choe U did not consider these sons suitable as successors. Instead, he planned to pass power to his son-in-law, Kim Yak-seon. Fearing future power struggles, Choe U ordained his two sons as monks: the first son became Manjong (萬宗) and the second, Manjeon (萬全). They were sent to Songgwangsa Temple (松廣寺) in Suncheon, and later, Manjeon moved to Ssangbongsa Temple (雙峰寺) in Hwasun, and Manjong to Dansoksa Temple (斷俗寺) in Sancheong. However, these brothers caused havoc in the Jeolla and Gyeongsang regions, using the temples as their bases.

Meanwhile, in Ganghwa, Kim Yak-seon prospered politically, even marrying his daughter to the crown prince, the future King Wonjong (元宗). However, jealousy from his wife over his interactions with other women led to a complaint to her father, Choe U, resulting in Kim Yak-seon's elimination.

Summoning his sons

With no successor in sight, his two illegitimate sons' rampages in the south became a significant problem. Eventually, Choe U, advised by Park Hwon (朴暄) and Song Guk-cheom (宋國瞻), reclaimed their sons' ill-gotten wealth and imprisoned their followers.

In 1247, he summoned his sons to Ganghwa. During their reunion, they lamented their persecution, even while their father was alive, fearing worse after his death. Moved, Choe U reinstated Choe Manjeon (崔萬全), renaming him Choe Hang (崔沆), and had him study the rites.

Death

In 1248 (the 35th year of King Gojong's reign), a year before his death, Choe U strengthened Choe Hang's position by appointing him as the Left and Right Guards Commander (左右衛上護軍) and Minister of Revenue and gave him 500 of his private soldiers. Choe U died in November 1249 after 30 years in power.

Evaluation

The "History of Goryeo" (Goryeosa) contains many anecdotes illustrating Choe U's immense power. For instance, once he suffered from severe leg swelling, everyone from high-ranking officials to lower-level clerks offered prayers and composed writings for his recovery, causing a paper shortage in the capital. Despite the efforts of many physicians, it was the wife of an official named Im Jeong (林靖), who came from a family of doctors who successfully treated him with an herbal plaster. The king even granted Im Jeong a government position to win Choe U's favor.

Choe U seemed to harbor ambitions for the throne. An astrologer, Ju Yeonji (周演之), discreetly told him that the current king was destined to lose the throne while Choe U was destined to become king. Choe U confided this prediction to his close aide Kim Heeje (金希磾) to gauge the reaction, but he became furious when it was met with indifference. Choe U sometimes used his wealth for public works, such as repairing the outer walls of Gaegyeong or donating rice to the Yanghyeon Foundation (養賢庫). However, these expenses were minimal compared to his vast fortune.

Governance

Choe U held the post of Vice-Chancellor (參知政事) of the second rank only a year after seizing power. For almost the next 30 years, he did not assume any particular governmental positions.

The primary support for the Choe family's power was their military strength. They commanded a large private army that far surpassed the official government forces. This army, known as the Tobang (都房), was said to stretch for two to three ri (about 0.8-1.2 kilometers) when assembled. The Dobang was originally a guard unit created by Kyŏng Tae-sŭng (慶大升). He gathered hundreds of elite soldiers, housed and trained them at his residence, and always kept them by his side, even sharing the same blankets to show his sincerity. After Gyeong Dae-seung's death, his Dobang forces were thoroughly eradicated. However, the Choe family revived the concept of maintaining a private army at their residence, also called Gobang, which always protected the ruling family. During Choe U's rule, internal and external instability led to the decline of official military forces, resulting in a rise in banditry. To counter this, Choe U gathered brave warriors to patrol nightly, which led to the formation of the Yabyeolcho (夜別抄). This group later split into the Left and Right Byeolcho and, along with the Shin'ui Army (神義軍), formed the Sambyeolcho (三別抄), which served as the military foundation for the Choe regime.

While the military might be crucial during times of crisis, long-term stability requires more than force. The cooperation and support of the literati were essential. During Choe U's reign, he established an organization to bind scholars close to the ruler, Seobang (書房). Seobang was a group of literati established at Choe U's residence, divided into three shifts to serve continuously.

The most influential institution in the Choe military regime was the Gyojeong Dogam (敎定都監). In 1209 (5th year of King Heejong's reign), a revolt by three station clerks aiming to assassinate Choe Chungheon and his son led to the creation of Gyojeong Dogam to investigate the incident. Even after the investigation concluded, the organization continued to gather information and expanded its role to encompass all national affairs. Especially after the capital moved to Ganghwa Island, Gyojeong Dogam became central to national administration, including tax collection.

The Choe regime also derived power from monopolizing personnel appointments. They established the Jeongbang (政房) in 1225 (12th year of King Gojong's reign) to manage this function. Although Jeongbang was located at Choe U's residence and functioned more like a private institution of the Choe regime rather than an official state organ, it decided all official appointments. The king merely approved the lists submitted by Jeongbang.

Extravagance

Despite his initial efforts to gain popular support, his later years were marked by tyranny and extravagance, leading to public resentment.

During the Mongol invasions and the subsequent relocation of the capital to Ganghwa Island, Choe U seized over a hundred carts to transport officials' salaries. They used them to move his wealth first. Even in Ganghwa, his luxurious lifestyle remained unchanged. In 1245 (the 32nd year of King Gojong's reign), he hosted a grand banquet in May during a brief respite from Mongol attacks. He constructed a high pavilion draped with silk and brocade curtains, where swings adorned with intricate patterns were hung. He decorated the area with giant ice sculptures shaped like mountains, surrounded by silver and mother-of-pearl decorations. Four large jars filled with peonies and ten other types of flowers, reflecting the ice and flowers' colors, created a dazzling display. The banquet, attended by over 1,350 people, showcased his wealth and power.

Choe U's titles were extensive, as recorded in the epitaph of his son and successor, Choe Hang (崔沆). He held 26 official titles, including Geumjagwangnokdaebu (金紫光祿大夫), Sutaesa (守大師), Gaebui-dongsamsa (開府儀同三司), Jungseoryeong (中書令), Sangjuguk (上柱國), Sangjanggun (上將軍), Gamsuguksa (監修國史), Panuosadae (判御史臺事), Jin Yang-gung Gae-guk-gong (晋陽郡開國公), and others. He was granted fiefs of 3,000 households and a food stipend for 1,000 families. He held the highest ranks in civil and military positions and received the posthumous title of Gwangyeol-gong (匡烈公).

Honors and Remembrance

Choe U was honored as a loyalist for relocating the capital and was depicted in the Gongsindang (功臣堂) Hall of Merit. However, after the fall of the Choe regime, his image was removed, and his worship in the royal ancestral shrine was abolished. His posthumous title was Gwangnyeol (匡烈).

Legacy

King Gojong promptly appointed Choe Hang to high offices similar to those initially held by his father and soon after made him Chief of the Gyojeong Dogam, formalizing his rule. Thus, the Choe military regime continued into its third generation. Choe Hang ruled for eight years, dying in 1257 (44th year of King Gojong's reign) at 49. Power then passed to his son Choe Ui (崔竩), born to a concubine. However, Choe Ui's reign lasted less than a year before he was overthrown in a coup led by Yu Gyeong (柳璥), Kim Jun (金俊), and Im Yeon (林衍) in March 1258 (45th year of King Gojong's reign), ending the Choe military regime after four generations and 60 years.

Family

• Father: Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn (1149 – 29 October 1219)
  • Grandfather: Ch'oe Won-ho (최원호)
  • Grandmother: Lady Yu (부인 유씨)
• Mother: Lady Song (부인 송씨)
  • Grandfather: Song Ch'ŏng (송청)
• Wives and their issue(s):
  • Lady Chŏng , of the Hadong Chŏng clan (부인 하동 정씨; ? – 1231); daughter of Chŏng Sukch'ŏm (정숙첨).
    • Lady Ch'oe (부인 최씨); married Kim Yak-sŏn
      • Grandson: Kim Mi (김미)
      • Grandson: Kim Wi-hang (김위항)
      • Grandson: Kim P'il-yŏng (김필영)
        • Great-granddaughter: Queen Jeongsun (정순왕후, 1222 – 29 July 1237)
    • Lady Ch'oe (부인 최씨)
  • Lady Tae, of the Hyeopgye Tae clan (부인 협계 대씨; ? – 1251); daughter of Dae Jip-seong (대집성 , d. 1236).
    • O Sŭng-jŏk (오승적) – stepson died after being killed by Ch'oe Hang.
  • Lady Ch'oe, of the Cheorwon Ch'oe clan (부인 철원 최씨)
  • Lady Seo Ryeon-bang (서련방)
    • Ch'oe Man-jong (최만종)
    • Ch'oe Hang (최항; 1209 – 17 May 1257)
  • Lady An Sim (안심)

See also

• History of Korea
• List of Goryeo people