Estonian grammar: Difference between revisions
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The neutral word order in Estonian is [[Subject Verb Object]] (SVO). Conjunctions: ''aga'' (but), ''et'' (that), ''ja'' (and), ''kas'' (whether), ''kui'' (if), ''nagu'' (as), ''sest'' (because), ''või'' (or). Questions begin with an interrogative word (interrogative pro-forms or ''kas'' ([[yes-no question|yes/no-question]]), ''eks'' (yes-question), ''ega'' (no-question)), followed by the SVO word order (in spoken language, interrogative words are sometimes left out, but instead there is either a change in intonation or VSO word order); answers: ''jah/jaa'' (yes), ''ei'' (no). An adjective precedes the noun it modifies. An adverb of time precedes an adverb of place. |
The neutral word order in Estonian is [[Subject Verb Object]] (SVO). Conjunctions: ''aga'' (but), ''et'' (that), ''ja'' (and), ''kas'' (whether), ''kui'' (if), ''nagu'' (as), ''sest'' (because), ''või'' (or). Questions begin with an interrogative word (interrogative pro-forms or ''kas'' ([[yes-no question|yes/no-question]]), ''eks'' (yes-question), ''ega'' (no-question)), followed by the SVO word order (in spoken language, interrogative words are sometimes left out, but instead there is either a change in intonation or VSO word order); answers: ''jah/jaa'' (yes), ''ei'' (no). An adjective precedes the noun it modifies. An adverb of time precedes an adverb of place. |
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However, as one would expect from an [[agglutinative language]], the word order is quite free and non-neutral word order can be used to stress some parts of the sentence or in poetic text, as in [[Finnish grammar#Word order|Finnish grammar]]. For example, consider the sentence ''mees tappis karu'' which means ''(a/the) man killed (a/the) bear'' and uses the neutral SVO word order. The sentence can be rephrased using OVS word order as ''karu tappis mees'' — a normal Estonian sentence that could be more precisely translated as ''it was (a/the) man who killed the bear'', i. e. the sayer emphasizes that the killer was a man, probably assuming the listener knows that a bear was killed. The other four word orders (''tappis mees karu'', ''tappis karu mees'', ''mees karu tappis'', ''karu mees tappis'') are also possible in certain contexts, especially if more words are added to the three-word sentences. |
However, as one would expect from an [[agglutinative language]], the word order is quite free and non-neutral word order can be used to stress some parts of the sentence or in poetic text, as in [[Finnish grammar#Word order|Finnish grammar]]. For example, consider the sentence ''mees tappis karu'' which means ''(a/the) man killed (a/the) bear'' and uses the neutral SVO word order. The sentence can be rephrased using OVS word order as ''karu tappis mees'' — a normal Estonian sentence that could be more precisely translated as ''it was (a/the) man who killed the bear'', i. e. the sayer emphasizes that the killer was a man, probably assuming the listener knows that a bear was killed. The other four word orders (''tappis mees karu'', ''tappis karu mees'', ''mees karu tappis'', ''karu mees tappis'') are also possible in certain contexts, especially if more words are added to the three-word sentences. Another somewhat infamous example demonstrating lax word order is ''isa peksab ema'', which can be translated as ''father is beating mother'', but also as ''mother is beating father''. |
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Sometimes the form of the verb, nouns and adjectives in the sentence are not enough to determine the subject and object, e. g. ''mehed tapsid karud'' (''the men killed the bears'') or ''isa tappis karu'' (''father killed the bear'') — in the first sentence because in plural, the nominative case is used in Estonian both for subject and telic object, and in the second sentence because in singular, the nominative, genitive and partitive forms of the word ''isa'' are the same, as well as those of the word ''karu'' (unlike the word ''mees'' which has different forms: sg. nom. ''mees'', sg. gen. ''mehe'', sg. part. ''meest''). In such sentences, word order is the only thing that distinguishes the subject and the object: listener presumes that the former noun (''mehed'', ''isa'') is the subject and the latter (''karud'', ''karu'') is the object. In such situations, the sayer cannot interchange the subject and the object for emphasis (at least unless it is obvious from the context which noun is the subject). |
Sometimes the form of the verb, nouns and adjectives in the sentence are not enough to determine the subject and object, e. g. ''mehed tapsid karud'' (''the men killed the bears'') or ''isa tappis karu'' (''father killed the bear'') — in the first sentence because in plural, the nominative case is used in Estonian both for subject and telic object, and in the second sentence because in singular, the nominative, genitive and partitive forms of the word ''isa'' are the same, as well as those of the word ''karu'' (unlike the word ''mees'' which has different forms: sg. nom. ''mees'', sg. gen. ''mehe'', sg. part. ''meest''). In such sentences, word order is the only thing that distinguishes the subject and the object: listener presumes that the former noun (''mehed'', ''isa'') is the subject and the latter (''karud'', ''karu'') is the object. In such situations, the sayer cannot interchange the subject and the object for emphasis (at least unless it is obvious from the context which noun is the subject). |
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Revision as of 09:25, 22 October 2009
Estonian grammar is a grammar of the Estonian language.
Nouns
Inflectional endings as listed below are added to the stem of a noun, which is formed from:
- singular genitive: singular cases except nominative and partitive, plural nominative,
- singular partitive: plural genitive,
- plural genitive: plural cases except nominative and partitive.
Singular nominative, singular genitive and singular partitive are not predictable and have to be taken from the vocabulary (gradation may also apply).
Singular nominative can take the following endings: -ja (agent, from -ma infinitive), -mine (gerund, from -ma infinitive), -la, -nna, -tar, -ur, -stik, -ndik, -nik, -ik, -k, -ng, -lane, -line, -kene, -ke, -e, -ndus, -dus, -us, -is, -kond, -nd, -istu, -u.
Singular genitive can take the following endings: -a, -e, -i, -u.
Singular partitive can take the following endings: -d, -t, -a, -e, -i, -u.
Plural partitive is formed from either singular genitive or singular partitive and can take the following endings (some words have two forms):
- -id: one-syllable words with long vowels aa, ee, õõ, uu, öö, ää, two-syllable words with long vowels or endings -em, -en, -el, -er, -ar, -ur, -e, -ne, -s or singular genitive with one or three syllables, three-syllable words with endings -ne, -s,
- -sid: one-syllable words with long vowels ii, üü or a diphthong, two-syllable words with short vowels, three-syllable words with endings -um, -on, -er, -ar, -är, -ov, -nna,
- -e: words with singular partitive endings -i, -u, -j, or singular partitive ending -a with the preceding syllable containing u,
- -i: words with singular partitive ending -e, or singular partitive ending on consonant with singular genitive ending -e, or singular partitive ending -a with the preceding syllable containing vowels e, o, ä, ö, ü or a diphthong with one of these vowels as the first sound with the exception of ei, äi,
- -u: words with singular partitive ending -a with the preceding syllable containing vowels a, i, õ or diphthongs ei, äi.
Singular illative has a short form in some words. It can take the following endings: -de, -he, -hu, -a, -e, -i, -u. In case it takes the vowel ending, this vowel is the same as the ending vowel of the singular genitive form of the given word, but the vowel (if it is already long or a diphthong) or its preceding consonant (if the vowel is short and the consonant either short or long) is lengthened to the third degree and thus becomes overlong. If illative ends with -sesse, then the short form is -sse.
Plural illative, inessive, elative, allative, adessive, ablative, translative have a short form in some words. If the plural partitive ends with -id, then the short plural stem is this form without -d (instead of plural genitive with -de-); if it ends with a vowel, then the short plural stem is this form; if it ends with -sid, then the short plural cannot be formed.
Emphasis: noun + -gi (after a final voiced consonant or vowel) / -ki (after a final voiceless consonant).
- personal (nominative - genitive - partitive, singular / plural): m(in)a - m(in)u - mind / m(ei)e - m(ei)e - meid (I), s(in)a - s(in)u - sind / t(ei)e - t(ei)e - teid (you), t(em)a - t(em)a - teda / n(em)ad - nende - neid (he/she/it); reflexive: ise - enese/enda - ennast/end / ise - eneste/endi - endid (-self)
- demonstrative (nominative - genitive - partitive, singular / plural): see - selle - seda / need - nende - neid (this/that), too - tolle - toda / nood - nonde - noid (yonder)
- interrogative (nominative - genitive - partitive): kes - kelle - keda (who), mis - mille - mida (what), milline - millise - millist (which out of many), kumb - kumma - kumba (which out of two)
- existential (nominative - genitive - partitive): keegi - kellegi - kedagi (someone), miski - millegi - midagi (something), mõni - mõne - mõnda (some), ükski - ühegi - ühtegi (one)
- free choice (nominative - genitive - partitive): mingi - mingi - mingit (anyone/anything/any), kumbki - kummagi - kumbagi (either)
- universal (nominative - genitive - partitive): kõik - kõige - kõike (everyone/everything/each), mõlemad - mõlema - mõlemat (both)
| Declension of nouns | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | ||||||||||||||
| Number | Nominative | Genitive | Partitive | Illative | Inessive | Elative | Allative | Adessive | Ablative | Translative | Terminative | Essive | Abessive | Comitative |
| Singular | - | - | - | -sse | -s | -st | -le | -l | -lt | -ks | -ni | -na | -ta | -ga |
| Plural | -d | -de / -te | -id / -sid / -e / -i / -u | -sse | -s | -st | -le | -l | -lt | -ks | -ni | -na | -ta | -ga |
Adjectives
Inflectional endings as listed below are added to the stem of an adjective, which is formed like the one for nouns.
The stem for the comparative and superlative forms is the singular genitive of an adjective; if a word has two syllables in the genitive or a vowel following -ke(se), then -ke(se) is left out and the last vowel in the stem changes to -e. The genitive and the partitive of the comparative itself are formed with -a and -at.
Singular nominative can take the following endings: -v (active present participle, from -ma infinitive), -nud (active perfect participle, from -da infinitive), -tav (passive present participle, from -tud participle), -tud (passive perfect participle), -lik, -line, -lane, -ne, -ke, -kas, -jas, -tu.
Antonym: eba- + adjective.
- numeral (nominative - genitive - partitive, with noun in singular nominative for 1 and in singular partitive for others): null - nulli - nulli (0), üks - ühe - üht (1), kaks - kahe - kaht (2), kolm - kolme - kolme (3), neli - nelja - nelja (4), viis - viie - viit (5), kuus - kuue - kuut (6), seitse - seitsme - seitset (7), kaheksa - kaheksa - kaheksat (8), üheksa - üheksa - uheksat (9), kümme - kümne - kümmet (10), -teist(kümmend) - -teist(kümne) - -teist(kümmet) (11-19), -kümmend - -kümne - -kümmet (20-90), sada - saja - sadat (100), -sada - -saja - -sadat (200-900), - tuhat - - tuhande - - tuhandet (1.000-999.000), - miljon - - miljoni - - miljonit (1.000.000-999.000.000), - miljard - - miljardi - - miljardit (1.000.000.000); ordinal: esimene - esimese - esimest (1.), teine - teise - teist (2.), kolmas - kolmanda - kolmandat (3.), cardinal_genitive-s - cardinal_genitive-nda - cardinal_genitive-ndat (others)
- demonstrative (nominative - genitive - partitive, singular / plural): niisugune - niisuguse - niisugust (this kind), see - selle - seda / need - nende - neid (this/that), too - tolle - toda / nood - nonde - noid (yonder)
- interrogative (nominative - genitive - partitive): missugune - missuguse - missugust (what kind), milline - millise - millist (which)
- existential (nominative - genitive - partitive): mingisugune - mingisuguse - mingisugust (some kind), mõni - mõne - mõnda (some)
- free choice (nominative - genitive - partitive): mingisugune - mingisuguse - mingisugust (any kind), ükskõik milline - ükskõik millise - ükskõik millist (any)
- universal (nominative - genitive - partitive): kõik - kõige - kõike (every kind), iga - iga - iga (every)
| Declension of adjectives | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | ||||||||||||||
| Number | Nominative | Genitive | Partitive | Illative | Inessive | Elative | Allative | Adessive | Ablative | Translative | Terminative | Essive | Abessive | Comitative |
| Singular | - | - | - | -sse | -s | -st | -le | -l | -lt | -ks | - | - | - | - |
| Plural | -d | -de / -te | -id / -sid / -e / -i / -u | -sse | -s | -st | -le | -l | -lt | -ks | - | - | - | - |
| Comparison of adjectives | |
|---|---|
| Type | |
| Degree | General |
| Positive | - |
| Comparative | -m |
| Superlative | -im / kõige -m |
Adpositions
- with the genitive case and declinable (illative/allative - inessive/adessive - elative/ablative): alla - all - allt (under), ette - ees - eest (in front of), juurde - juures - juurest (at), järele - järel - järelt (after), keskele - keskel - keskelt (in the middle), kohale - kohal - kohalt (above), kõrvale - kõrval - kõrvalt (beside), kätte - käes - käest (in the hand of), lähedale - lähedal - lähedalt (near), peale - peal - pealt (on), sisse - sees - seest (in), taha - taga - tagant (behind), vahele - vahel - vahelt (between), äärde - ääres - äärest (by)
- with the genitive case and non-declinable: eest / jaoks (for), järgi (according to), kaudu (via), kohta (about), pärast (on account of), vastas (vis-à-vis), vastu (against), üle (over), ümber (around)
- with the partitive case: mööda (along)
- with the elative case: alla (down), läbi (through), peale / saadik (since)
- with the genitive case: läbi (through), peale (besides), üle (over), ümber (around)
- with the partitive case: alla (down), enne (before), kesk / keset (amid), mööda (along), piki (alongside), pärast (after), vastu (against)
- with the terminative case: kuni (until)
- with the abessive case: ilma (without)
- with the comitative case: koos / ühes (with)
Verbs
Inflectional endings as listed below are added to the stem of a verb, which is formed from:
- indicative mood active voice singular first person of positive present tense (by dropping -n): indicative mood active voice of present tense, conditional mood active voice of present tense, imperative mood active voice singular second person of present tense,
- -ma infinitive (by dropping -ma; if the stem ends with a consonant, an additional -i- is added in the singular third person of the imperfect or an additional -e- is added in the singular nominative of the participle, the consonant is doubled if it was short and preceding a short vowel; if the stem ends with -e while being two-syllable or if it ends with a long vowel, then the -s- is left out in all numbers and persons, ei is changed to i, a long vowel becomes short and o, ö are changed to õ): indicative mood active voice of positive imperfect tense, quotative mode active voice of present tense,
- -da infinitive (by dropping -da / -ta / -a; long final l, r become short, in spoken language -nud is shortened to -nd): indicative mood active voice of negative imperfect tense, indicative mood active voice of pluperfect tense, imperative mood active voice of present tense except singular second person, active voice of perfect tense,
- participle of passive voice perfect tense (by dropping -tud): passive voice.
-ma infinitive and -da infinitive are not predictable and have to be taken from the vocabulary. Present tense form and -tud participle are derived from the infinitives on the basis of gradation.
-ma infinitive is used after verbs of motion and after participles. It can be declined: -ma (illative), -mas (inessive), -mast (elative), -maks (translative), -mata (abessive).
-da infinitive is used after verbs of emotion, after impersonal expressions, after et (in order to) and as a subject. It can be declined: -des (inessive).
Verb derivation: -ta- (transitive/passive), -u- / -i- (reflexive), -el- / -le- (reciprocal), -ne- (translative), -ata- (momentary), -el- / -skle- (repetitive), -tse- (continuous).
Emphasis: verb + -gi (after a final voiced consonant or vowel) / -ki (after a final voiceless consonant), verb + küll (positive), verb + mitte (negative).
| Conjugation of verbs | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tense | |||||||||||
| Present | Imperfect | Perfect | Pluperfect | ||||||||
| Mood | Voice | Number | Person | Positive | Negative | Positive | Negative | Positive | Negative | Positive | Negative |
| Indicative | |||||||||||
| Active | |||||||||||
| Singular | First | -n | ei - | -sin | ei -nud | olen -nud | ei ole -nud | olin -nud | ei olnud -nud | ||
| Second | -d | -sid | oled -nud | olid -nud | |||||||
| Third | -b | -s | on -nud | oli -nud | |||||||
| Plural | First | -me | -sime | oleme -nud | olime -nud | ||||||
| Second | -te | -site | olete -nud | olite -nud | |||||||
| Third | -vad | -sid | on -nud | olid -nud | |||||||
| Passive | / | -takse | ei -ta | -ti | ei -tud | on -tud | ei ole -tud | oli -tud | ei olnud -tud | ||
| Conditional | |||||||||||
| Active | |||||||||||
| Singular | First | -ksin | ei -ks | / | oleksin -nud | ei oleks -nud | / | ||||
| Second | -ksid | oleksid -nud | |||||||||
| Third | -ks | oleks -nud | |||||||||
| Plural | First | -ksime | oleksime -nud | ||||||||
| Second | -ksite | oleksite -nud | |||||||||
| Third | -ksid | oleksid -nud | |||||||||
| Passive | / | -taks | ei -taks | oleks -tud | ei oleks -tud | ||||||
| Imperative | |||||||||||
| Active | |||||||||||
| Singular | First | / | / | / | / | ||||||
| Second | - | ära - | |||||||||
| Third | -gu | ärgu -gu | olgu -nud | ärgu olgu -nud | |||||||
| Plural | First | -gem | ärgem -gem | / | |||||||
| Second | -ge | ärge -ge | |||||||||
| Third | -gu | ärgu -gu | olgu -nud | ärgu olgu -nud | |||||||
| Passive | / | -tagu | ärgu -tagu | olgu -tud | ärgu olgu -tud | ||||||
| Quotative | |||||||||||
| Active | |||||||||||
| Singular | First | -vat | ei -vat | / | olevat -nud | ei olevat -nud | / | ||||
| Second | |||||||||||
| Third | |||||||||||
| Plural | First | ||||||||||
| Second | |||||||||||
| Third | |||||||||||
| Passive | / | -tavat | ei -tavat | olevat -tud | ei olevat -tud | ||||||
Adverbs
Inflectional endings as listed below are added to the stem of an adverb, which is formed from:
- singular genitive of an adjective (-sti, -ti, -ldi, -li, -kesi): genetival type,
- singular ablative of an adjective (-lt; some are declinable in allative, adessive, ablative): ablatival type.
Some adverbs are special words - original or vestigial forms of an ancient instructive case.
- demonstrative (illative/allative - inessive/adessive - elative/ablative): siia - siin - siit (here), sinna - seal - sealt (there), nüüd (now), siis (then), seega (thus), seepärast (therefore)
- interrogative (illative/allative - inessive/adessive - elative/ablative): kuhu - kus - kust (where), millal (when), kuidas (how), miks (why)
- existential (illative/allative - inessive/adessive - elative/ablative): kuhugi - kuskil - kuskilt (somewhere), kunagi (sometime), kuidagi (somehow)
- free choice (illative/allative - inessive/adessive - elative/ablative): ükskõik kuhu - ükskõik kus - ükskõik kuht (anywhere), ükskõik millal (anytime), igatahes (anyhow)
- universal (illative/allative - inessive/adessive - elative/ablative): igale poole - igal pool - igalt poolt (everywhere), alati (always)
| Comparison of adverbs | ||
|---|---|---|
| Type | ||
| Degree | Genetival | Ablatival |
| Positive | - | -lt |
| Comparative | -mini | -malt |
| Superlative | kõige -mini | kõige -malt |
Syntax
The neutral word order in Estonian is Subject Verb Object (SVO). Conjunctions: aga (but), et (that), ja (and), kas (whether), kui (if), nagu (as), sest (because), või (or). Questions begin with an interrogative word (interrogative pro-forms or kas (yes/no-question), eks (yes-question), ega (no-question)), followed by the SVO word order (in spoken language, interrogative words are sometimes left out, but instead there is either a change in intonation or VSO word order); answers: jah/jaa (yes), ei (no). An adjective precedes the noun it modifies. An adverb of time precedes an adverb of place.
However, as one would expect from an agglutinative language, the word order is quite free and non-neutral word order can be used to stress some parts of the sentence or in poetic text, as in Finnish grammar. For example, consider the sentence mees tappis karu which means (a/the) man killed (a/the) bear and uses the neutral SVO word order. The sentence can be rephrased using OVS word order as karu tappis mees — a normal Estonian sentence that could be more precisely translated as it was (a/the) man who killed the bear, i. e. the sayer emphasizes that the killer was a man, probably assuming the listener knows that a bear was killed. The other four word orders (tappis mees karu, tappis karu mees, mees karu tappis, karu mees tappis) are also possible in certain contexts, especially if more words are added to the three-word sentences. Another somewhat infamous example demonstrating lax word order is isa peksab ema, which can be translated as father is beating mother, but also as mother is beating father.
Sometimes the form of the verb, nouns and adjectives in the sentence are not enough to determine the subject and object, e. g. mehed tapsid karud (the men killed the bears) or isa tappis karu (father killed the bear) — in the first sentence because in plural, the nominative case is used in Estonian both for subject and telic object, and in the second sentence because in singular, the nominative, genitive and partitive forms of the word isa are the same, as well as those of the word karu (unlike the word mees which has different forms: sg. nom. mees, sg. gen. mehe, sg. part. meest). In such sentences, word order is the only thing that distinguishes the subject and the object: listener presumes that the former noun (mehed, isa) is the subject and the latter (karud, karu) is the object. In such situations, the sayer cannot interchange the subject and the object for emphasis (at least unless it is obvious from the context which noun is the subject).
References
- Moseley, C. (1994). Colloquial Estonian: A Complete Language Course. London: Routledge.
- Tuldava, J. (1994). Estonian Textbook: Grammar, Exercises, Conversation. Bloomington: Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Indiana University.