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Hebron Hills

Coordinates: 31°26′N 35°0′E / 31.433°N 35.000°E / 31.433; 35.000
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For other uses, see Mount Hebron (disambiguation).
Hebron Hills
Harvesting in the South Hebron Hills
Highest point
Elevation1,026 m (3,366 ft)
Prominence1,026 m (3,366 ft)
Coordinates31°26′N 35°0′E / 31.433°N 35.000°E / 31.433; 35.000
Naming
Native name
Geography
Map
LocationWest Bank
Parent rangeJudean Mountains

The Hebron Hills, also known as Mount Hebron (Arabic: جبل الخليل, romanized: Jabal al-Khalīl, Hebrew: הר חברון, romanized: Har Hevron), are a mountain ridge, geographic region, and geologic formation, constituting the southern part of the Judean Mountains.[1] The Hebron Hills are located in the southern West Bank.[2][3][4]

During the Iron Age, the Hebron Hills were part of the Kingdom of Judah, which underwent a forced exile after being conquered by the Babylonians. Subsequently, in the Hellenistic period, an Edomite population migrating to the area became dominant, leading to its being referred to as Idumaea. The Edomites later converted to Judaism and assimilated into the Jewish population.[5][6] Despite many settlements being destroyed or abandoned due to the brutal suppression of the Bar Kokhva revolt, a Jewish presence persisted in the area.[7]

In the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, the Hebron Hills were divided demographically into a Christian northern part and a mixed Jewish-Christian southern area.[8] During this time, the southern Hebron Hills became known as Daroma, meaning "South" in Hebrew and Aramaic.[9][10] Several synagogues from this period have been unearthed in the region. Following the Muslim conquest of the Levant, the Jewish population in the area declined as Muslims became dominant.

In the Ottoman period, Mount Hebron served as a stop for farmers and herders, primarily from the deserts of Arabia and Transjordan, who migrated due to factors like severe drought. Between the 17th and 19th centuries, Mount Hebron experienced extensive violence involving rival families and Bedouins, leading to migrations and the destruction of many villages.[11]

Geography

The highest peak of the mountain ridge is in the Palestinian city of Halhul, where a tableland exists with an altitude of 1,026 metres (3,366 ft).[citation needed]

History

Iron Age

The Book of Joshua mentions Maon, Carmel, Adora, and Juttah among others as part of the tribal territory of the Tribe of Judah.[12] The modern Arabic names of Ma'in, al-Karmil, Dura, and Yatta respectively preserve the ancient names.[13][14][15][16]

As the Nabataeans pushed northwards, the Edomites were driven out of old Edom to the south of the Dead Sea and into the southern Hebron Hills between the southern part of the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean, establishing new Edom or Idumaea.[17][5][6]

Hellenistic period

Further information: Idumea

During the Hellenistic period, the Edomites became the dominant population of the southern Hebron Hills.[9] Under Ptolemaic rule, the area became a separate administrative unit known as Idumea, named after its inhabitants. Marisa became its administrative center, with Ziph and Adoraim being of secondary importance.[9]

Hellenistic rule brought Greek and Phoenician culture into Idumea, while the prevalence of male circumcision shows a growing affinity with Judaism.[18]

In 113-112 BCE, the region was captured by the John Hyrcanus, who converted the Edomites to Judaism and incorporated Idumaea into the Hasmonean kingdom.[9][18]

Roman period

The region took part in the Bar Kokhva revolt against the Roman Empire (132-135 CE). The revolt left many settlements in the area destroyed or abandoned, and some of its residents migrated to the Galilee.[9] However, while many areas in Judea proper were depopulated during the revolt and subsequently resettled by foreigners loyal to the Romans, the southern Hebron Hills stood out with its continuing, albeit diminished, Jewish presence.[7] In his Geography, written around 150 CE, Claudius Ptolemy describes Idumea as a desolate area, in contrast to the relative density in the rest of the country north of Idumea to the Galilee.[9]

Late Roman and Byzantine period

During the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, the Hebron Hills were demographically divided into two distinct sub-regions. In the northern part, Christian settlements were established atop the remains of previously destroyed Jewish villages. Meanwhile, the southern Hebron Hills were inhabited by both Jewish and Christian communities.[8] There is evidence that the region was also inhabited by pagans and Jewish Christians during that period.[9]

During the same period, the southern Hebron Hills became known as Darom or Daroma (Hebrew and Aramaic for "South"). This term appears in rabbinic literature and in Eusebius' Onomasticon.[9][10] In his Onomasticon, Eusebius mentions seven Jewish settlements that existed in his time in the southern Hebron Hills: Juttah, Carmel, Eshtemoa, Rimmon, Tele, Lower Anim, and Ein Gedi. Archaeological finds confirm the existence of Jewish and Christian settlements in Yatta, al-Karmil, as-Samu, Zif, Maon, Kfar Aziz, Eaton, Gomer, Kishor, Tela, Rimon, and Aristobolia. Jewish settlements were typically built surrounding a synagogue.[8]

The Jewish population in the southern Hebron Hills appears to have consisted of the descendants of the Jewish residents who remained in the area after the Bar Kokhba revolt, in addition to Jewish migrants from Galilee who joined them. This influx might have occurred during the time of Judah ha-Nasi, who maintained positive relations with the Roman authorities.[7]

In the southern Hebron Hills, four synagogues dating from the Talmudic period have been unearthed: Eshtemoa, Susiya, Maon, and 'Anim.[19][20] These synagogues share common architectural features that set them apart from others found in the Land of Israel.[20] The Eshtemoa synagogue was excavated in the mid-1930s and was initially considered architecturally unique, being classified as 'transitional' between early and late synagogues. Later excavation of the Susiya synagogue revealed significant similarities between the two, leading scholars to categorize the synagogues of the area as a distinct architectural group. Between 1987 and 1990, excavations at the Maon and 'Anim synagogues revealed both similarities and differences compared to those in Eshtemoa and Susiya.[20]

Early Islamic period

Following the Muslim conquest of the Levant, the Jewish population in the southern Hebron Hills had been gradually replaced by Muslims. During the early Islamic period, the synagogues of Susya and Eshtemoa were repurposed as mosques.[8][21] It remains unclear whether local Jews had fled the area or had converted to Islam.[citation needed]

Some Palestinians residing in the Hebron Hills, most notably the Makhamras of Yatta, view themselves as having Jewish ancestry.[22][23][24][25]

Mosaic floor of the Maon synagogue

Crusader period

During the Crusades, at the time of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, all the Hebron Hills fell under the dominion of the seigneurie of St. Abraham.[26]

Ottoman period

In the 16th century, Mount Hebron came under Ottoman rule. Findings indicate that during the 17th and 18th centuries, Mount Hebron witnessed widespread violence, resulting in significant migrations and hegemony changes. Travelers' accounts from the late 17th to the early 19th century documented violence in the Hebron area, especially in its northern fringe, where conflicts between Hebron and Bethlehem districts led to the destruction of many villages. Limited information on southern Mount Hebron suggests a common practice of spending part of the year in caves and underground caverns.[11]

In the years before Muhammad Ali of Egypt took control of the Levant (1831-1840) and the following two decades, the area faced ongoing insecurity. The struggle for control over Mount Hebron between rival groups in Dura led to a violent conflict, drawing in nearby Bedouin tribes and prompting local residents to relocate to cave dwellings.[11]

In the 19th century, there were instances of peasants from Transjordan moving to Hebron, driven by long droughts in their home areas. This migration provided labor for growing grains commercially in the Bayt Jibrin area, not far from western Hebron.[11]

Both fellahin and Bedouins relied on their livestock as a form of "insurance" during droughts, prompting them to migrate following the rains and adopt a nomadic lifestyle not only in the Hebron Hills but also in other parts of Palestine. This phenomenon is particularly prevalent in Yatta and as-Samu, where droughts are frequent. Sometimes, this prolonged nomadism led to permanent migration to more hospitable areas. Consequently, rural communities from the Hebron Hills emerged in regions such as Nablus and Dothan in the northern West Bank, as well as in Wadi 'Ara and the Manasseh Hills.[27]

1967 and after

In recent times, several areas where traditional Palestinian herding communities live have been declared restricted military zones, forcing the displacement of many families. Several Israeli settlements have been established over the terrain. The Israeli military administration regards the area as a high priority for enforcing demolition orders regarding Palestinian dwellings.[28]

Population

Several Palestinian Muslim clans residing in the Hebron Hills are purported to have or claim Jewish ancestry. The Makhamra family, based in Yatta, has a tradition of tracing their ancestry back to a Jewish tribe of Khaybar. They have preserved various customs resembling Jewish practices.[29][30] In Halhul, the Sawarah clan and the Shatrit family are reputed to have Jewish origins.[31][32] Traditions of Jewish ancestry have also been noted in Dura and Beit Ummar.[31]

Palestinian anthropologist Ali Qleibo noted that residents of as-Samu and Yatta identify as Qaysi, pure Arabs from Hejaz, with genealogical records tracing back to the Arabian Desert. However, in the southern Hebron Hills, the prevalent genetic makeup features alleles for blonde hair, fair skin, and blue eyes, which he says could be attributed to Crusaders or cross-cousin marriage. Qleibo found it curious that the genetic characteristics of Beit Ummar's population, who consider themselves descendants of a Crusader prince converted to Islam over seven centuries ago, predominantly exhibit typical Arabian traits, including white skin and jet-black hair.[33]

Flora and fauna

The Hebron Hills form the southern and eastern border of Mediterranean vegetation in the region of Palestine.

A 2012 survey by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority discovered 54 rare plant species in the region, more than half of them in cultivated fields. They include Boissiera squarrosa, a type of grass; Legousia hybrida, a plant from the bellflower family; and Reseda globulosa, a rare mignonette.[34]

The region has been known for its vineyards since biblical times. Palestinians and Israelis (from both parts of the Green Line) continue to farm grapes in this region. Local wineries include Yatir Winery.[citation needed]

See also

References

  1. ^ Werlin, Steven H. (2015). Ancient synagogues of Southern Palestine, 300-800 C.E.: living on the edge. Leiden: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-29840-8. OCLC 918997476. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  2. ^ Mijal Grinberg (2007-02-14). "Security forces demolish seven houses in Mt. Hebron villages". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 16 February 2007. Retrieved 2014-01-26.
  3. ^ Europa World Year Book 2. Taylor & Francis Group. 29 July 2004. p. 3308. ISBN 978-1-85743-255-8.
  4. ^ Dan P.Cole (2015). Lahav V: The Iron, Persian, and Hellenistic Occupation within the Walls at Tell Halif: Excavations in Field II: 1977-1980. Penn State Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-57506-366-9. is strategically located at the juncture of three different ecological zones: the Hebron Hills to the northeast, the foothills of the Shephelah to the west and the Northern Negev Desert to the south
  5. ^ a b Danielson, Andrew J. (2021-01-02). "Culinary Traditions in the Borderlands of Judah and Edom during the Late Iron Age". Tel Aviv. 48 (1): 87–111. doi:10.1080/03344355.2021.1904683. ISSN 0334-4355. S2CID 235189577.
  6. ^ a b Levin, Yigal (2020-09-24). "The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism". Religions. 11 (10): 487. doi:10.3390/rel11100487. ISSN 2077-1444.
  7. ^ a b c Zissu, Boaz; Klein, Eitan (2013). "Some Remarks on the Jewish Settlement in Judea during the Mishnaic and Talmudic Periods in Light of Funerary Finds". In the Highland's Depth (in Hebrew) (3): 183–184.
  8. ^ a b c d Avni, Gideon (2014). The Byzantine-Islamic transition in Palestine: an archaeological approach. Oxford University Press. pp. 197, 254–255. ISBN 978-0-19-150734-2. OCLC 871044531.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h ברוך, יובל (2009). חורבת סוסיה ורוג'ם אל-חמירי כמקרי מבחן להתפתחותו של הכפר והיישוב הכפרי בדרום הר-חברון מן התקופה הרומית הקדומה ועד לתקופה המוסלמית הקדומה [Baruch, Yuval (2009), Horbat Susya and Rujum el-Hamiri as a Case-Study for the Development of the Village and the Rural Settlement in the Southern Hebron Hills from the Early Roman to the Early Muslim Periods] (in Hebrew). Hebrew University of Jerusalem. OCLC 646899358.
  10. ^ a b Chapman III, Rupert L.; Taylor, J.E., eds. (2003). Palestine in the Fourth Century A.D.: The Onomasticon by Eusebius of Caesarea. Translated by G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville. Jerusalem: Carta. p. 72. ISBN 965-220-500-1. OCLC 937002750.
  11. ^ a b c d Grossman, D. "The expansion of the settlement frontier of Hebron's western and southern fringes". Geography Research Forum, 5, 1982, p. 62.
  12. ^ Joshua 15:1–22
  13. ^ Abel, F. -M. (1939). "Edward Robinson and the Identification of Biblical Sites". Journal of Biblical Literature. 58 (4): 365–372. doi:10.2307/3259708. ISSN 0021-9231. JSTOR 3259708.
  14. ^ Conder, CR (1876). "Notes on the Language of the Native Peasantry in Palestine" (PDF). Palestine Exploration Quarterly (Taylor & Francis). Retrieved Mar 25, 2018.
  15. ^ Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 2, p. 190
  16. ^ Conder and Kitchener, 1883, SWP III, p. 312
  17. ^ Torrey, C. C. (1898). "The Edomites in Southern Judah". Journal of Biblical Literature. 17 (1): 16–20. doi:10.2307/3268802. ISSN 0021-9231. JSTOR 3268802. Jews. As the Nabataeans, pushed from behind, gradually moved northward, the Edomites were the chief sufferers from their advance; and these in turn, being at length driven out from their old territory, were forced into southern Palestine, of which they finally gained possession; certainly not without a fierce and protracted struggle. The result was a complete shifting of the position of these two peoples; the Nabataeans ultimately occupying old Edom, while the Edomites moved into the region (new Edom, or Idumaea) lying between the southern part of the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean, territory formerly occupied for the most part by the tribe of Judah.
  18. ^ a b Levin, Yigal (2020-09-24). "The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism". Religions. 11 (10): 487. doi:10.3390/rel11100487. ISSN 2077-1444.
  19. ^ Werlin, Steven H. (2015). Ancient synagogues of Southern Palestine, 300-800 C.E.: living on the edge. Leiden: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-29840-8. OCLC 918997476. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  20. ^ a b c Amit, David (1998-01-01), "Architectural Plans of Synagogues in the Southern Judean Hills and the 'Halakah'", Ancient Synagogues, Volume 1, Brill, p. 129, doi:10.1163/9789004532359_013, ISBN 978-90-04-53235-9, retrieved 2024-05-26
  21. ^ Ehrlich, Michael (2022-05-31), "Judea and Jerusalem", The Islamization of the Holy Land, 634–1800, ARC Humanities Press, pp. 117–118, doi:10.1515/9781802700312-007, ISBN 978-1-80270-031-2, retrieved 2024-09-19
  22. ^ "Yatta, Ancient and Modern". ⁨⁨The Palestine Post⁩⁩. 21 December 1938. p. 8.
  23. ^ "The killers of Yatta". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 8 July 2016. Retrieved 2022-02-16.
  24. ^ Ben-Zvi, Yitzhak (1967). שאר ישוב: מאמרים ופרקים בדברי ימי הישוב העברי בא"י ובחקר המולדת (in Hebrew). תל אביב תרפ"ז. p. 407.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  25. ^ "4 Palestinians Claim Descent From Jews Forced to Convert". Haaretz. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  26. ^ Claude Reignier Conder, The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, (1897) Routledge reprint 2005 ISBN 978-0-710-31080-4 p.78.
  27. ^ Grossman, David (2004). Arab Demography and Early Jewish Settlement in Palestine: Distribution and Population Density during the Late Ottoman and Early Mandate Periods (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: The Hebrew University Magness Press, Jerusalem. p. 167. ISBN 978-965-493-184-7.
  28. ^ Amira Hass, Hagar Shezaf, 'The Village Where Palestinians Are Rendered Completely Powerless,' Haaretz 5 January 2021
  29. ^ Lowin, Shari (2010-10-01), "Khaybar", Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World, Brill, pp. 148–150, doi:10.1163/1878-9781_ejiw_com_0012910, retrieved 2023-06-22, Khaybar's Jews appear in Arab folklore as well. [...] The Muḥamara family of the Arab village of Yutta, near Hebron, trace their descent to the Jews of Khaybar. Families in other nearby villages tell of similar lineages.
  30. ^ "The killers of Yatta". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2022-02-16.
  31. ^ a b Grossman, D. (1986). "Oscillations in the Rural Settlement of Samaria and Judaea in the Ottoman Period". in Shomron studies. Dar, S., Safrai, S., (eds). Tel Aviv: Hakibbutz Hameuchad Publishing House. p. 314-317, 345-385
  32. ^ "⁨המוה־קנ' האחרון בלתי מסי ⁩ | ⁨שערים⁩ | 11 ינואר 1952 | אוסף העיתונות | הספרייה הלאומית". www.nli.org.il (in Hebrew). Retrieved 2024-03-05.
  33. ^ Qleibo, Ali (2009). "Canaanites, Christians, and the Palestinian Agricultural Calendar". Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studie. Center for Islamic Area Studies at Kyoto University: 16. doi:10.14989/87468.
  34. ^ Zafrir Rinat (15 March 2012). "Treasure trove of rare plants found in Israel's Hebron Hills". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 2012-03-18. Retrieved 26 January 2014.
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