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The '''history of education in the United States''', often called '''foundations of education,''' is the study of educational policy, formal institutions and informal learning from the 17th to the 21st century.

==History==
[[File:Boston Latin School original.jpg|thumb|right|First [[Boston Latin School]] House]]
The first American schools in the thirteen original colonies opened in the seventeenth century. [[Boston Latin School]] was founded in 1635 and is both the [[List of the oldest public high schools in the United States|first public school]] and oldest existing school in the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.bls.org/cfml/l3tmpl_history.cfm
|title="History of Boston Latin School—oldest public school in America"
|work=BLS Web Site
|accessdate=2007-06-01
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9015836/Boston-Latin-School
|title="Boston Latin School"
|work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cityofboston.gov/freedomtrail/firstpublic.asp
|title="First Public School Site and Ben Franklin Statue"
|work=City of Boston web site
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|title="Boston Latin School"
|url=http://www.nndb.com/edu/712/000068508/
|work=NNDB}}</ref> The nation's first institution of higher learning, [[Harvard University]], was founded in 1636 and opened in 1638. As the colonies began to develop, many New England colonies began to institute mandatory education schemes. In 1642 the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] made "proper" education compulsory.<ref>[http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/%7Ecfrnb/masslaws.html Massachusetts Education Laws of 1642 and 1647]. History of American Education], accessed February 15, 2006.</ref> Similar statutes were adopted in other colonies in the 1640s and 1650s. Virtually all of the schools opened as a result were private and were initially intended for boys and young men.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}<!---While education was primitive, I believe all children were required to read. Local schools admitted young girls as well as young boys---> In the 18th century, common ungraded schools appeared. Although they were publicly supplied, they were not free, and instead were supported by tuition or "rate bills."
===Religion===
Religious denominations established most early universities in order to train ministers. In New England there was an emphasis on literacy so that people could read the [[Bible]]. Most of the universities which opened between 1640 and 1750 form the contemporary [[Ivy League]], including [[Harvard University|Harvard]], [[Yale University|Yale]], [[Columbia University|Columbia]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]], [[Brown University|Brown]], the [[University of Pennsylvania]], and several others.<ref>[http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/agexed/aee501/show1/ Agriculture and Education in Colonial America]. North Carolina State University. URL accessed on February 28, 2006.</ref> After the [[American Revolution]], the new national government passed the [[Land Ordinance of 1785]], which set aside a portion of every township in the unincorporated territories of the United States for use in education. The provisions of the law remained unchanged until the [[Homestead Act]] of 1862. After the Revolution, an emphasis was put on education, especially in the northern states, which rapidly established public schools. The US population had one of the highest literacy rates at the time.<ref>"High literacy rates in America...exceeded 90 per cent in some regions by 1800." Hannah Barker and Simon Burrows, eds. ''Press, Politics and the Public Sphere in Europe and North America 1760-1820'' (2002) p. 141; for lower rates in Europe see p. 9.</ref>

===Public schools===
In 1821, Boston started the first public high school in the United States. By the close of the 19th century, public secondary schools began to outnumber private ones.<ref>[http://history-world.org/history_of_education.htm]</ref> <ref>Jurgen Herbst, ''The Once and Future School: Three Hundred and Fifty Years of American Secondary Education'' (1996)</ref>

In 1836, [[McGuffey Readers]] appeared. These emphasized morality. Other readers cautioned against sin.<ref>[http://history-world.org/history_of_education.htm]</ref> These were widely used in elementary schools until the 20th century.<!--- a guess. I don't know when these were phased out--->

Corporal punishment was used to maintain discipline, expected both by students and parents, at the discretion of the teacher.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}} This practice started to be questioned in mid-century.<ref>[http://www.primaryresearch.org/PRTHB/schoolhistory/display.php?file=dipietro]</ref><ref>[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8095608] page xi</ref> This was widely employed until well into the 20th century. While still permitted in many states in the 21st century, it is rarely used.

Over the years, Americans have been influenced by a number of European reformers; among them [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi|Pestalozzi]], [[Johann Friedrich Herbart|Herbart]], and [[Maria Montessori|Montessori]].<ref>[http://history-world.org/history_of_education.htm]</ref><!--need a bit more about them. Just here as a "stub"--->

[[File:hollischoolhouse.jpg|thumb|Colonial schoolhouse in [[Hollis, New Hampshire]]]]
===Attendance===
The school system remained largely private and unorganized until the 1840s. The first national census conducted in 1840 indicated that of the 1.8 million girls between five and fifteen (and 1.88 million boys of the same age) about 55% attended primary schools and academies.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=xMj-8u5DsgsC&pg=PR5&dq=census+%22United+States%22+1800&as_brr=1#PPA144,M1 1840 Census Data]. Progress of the United States in Population and Wealth in Fifty years, accessed May 10, 2008.</ref> The data tables do not note the actual attendance rates, but only reflect the static numbers at the time of the U.S. census. Beginning in the late 1830s, more private academies were established for girls for education past primary school, especially in northern states. Some offered classical education similar to that offered to boys.

Data from the indentured servant contracts of German immigrant children in Pennsylvania from 1771-1817 showed that the number of children receiving education increased from 33.3% in 1771-1773 to 69% in 1787-1804. Additionally, the same data showed that the ratio of school education versus home education rose from .25 in 1771-1773 to 1.68 in 1787-1804.<ref>Grubb, Farley. "Educational Choice in the Era Before Free Public Schooling: Evidence from German Immigrant Children in Pennsylvania, 1771-1817" ''The Journal of Economic History'', Vol. 52, No. 2. (Jun., 1992), pp. 363-375.</ref> While some African Americans managed to achieve literacy, southern states prohibited schooling to [[slavery|enslaved]] blacks.
===Teachers===
Teaching young students was not perceived as an end goal for educated people. Adults became teachers without any particular skill except sometimes in the topic they were teaching. The checking of credentials was left to the local school board, who were mainly interested in the efficient use of limited taxes. This started to change with the introduction of two-year [[Normal_school#In_the_United_States|normal schools]] in the early 1800s. By the end of the century, most teachers of elementary schools were trained in this fashion.<ref>Jurgen Herbst, ''The Once and Future School: Three Hundred and Fifty Years of American Secondary Education'' (1996)</ref>
===Mann reforms===
Education reformers such as [[Horace Mann]] of [[Massachusetts]] began calling for public education systems for all. Upon becoming the secretary of education in Massachusetts in 1837, Mann helped to create a statewide system, based on the [[Prussian]] model<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_education_system#Emulation_of_the_Prussian_education_system_in_the_United_States</ref>, of "common schools," which referred to the belief that everyone was entitled to the same content in education. These early efforts focused primarily on elementary education. The common-school movement began to catch on in the North. [[Connecticut]] adopted a similar system in [[1849]], and Massachusetts passed a compulsory attendance law in 1852.
===College preparation===
In the 1865-1914 era, the number and character of schools changed to meet the demands of new and larger cities and of new immigrants strange to American ways, and to adjust to the new spirit of reform permeating the country. High schools increased in number, adjusted their curriculum to prepare students for the growing state and private universities; education at all levels began to offer more utilitarian studies in place of an emphasis on the classics. [[John Dewey]] and other Progressives advocated changes from their base in teachers' colleges.<ref> Lawrence A. Cremin, ''American Education: The Metropolitan Experience, 1876-1980'' (1990)</ref>

Before 1920 most secondary education, whether private or public, emphasized college entry for a select few headed for college. Proficiency in Greek and Latin was emphasized. [[Abraham Flexner]], under commission from the philanthropic General Education Board (GEB) wrote ''A Modern School'' (1916) calling for a deemphasis on the classics. The classics teachers fought back in a losing effort.<ref> William G. Wraga, "The Assault on 'The Assault on Humanism': Classicists Respond to Abraham Flexner's 'A Modern School'" ''Historical Studies in Education'' 2008 20(1): 1-31</ref>

German was preferred as a second, spoken language prior to World War I. An anti-German attitude that resulted from the war, promoted French as a second language instead. French survived as the second language of choice until the 1960s, when Spanish became popular.<ref> John L. Watzke, ''Lasting Change in Foreign Language Education: A Historical Case for Change in National Policy'' (2003)</ref>

===Compulsory laws===
By 1900, 31 states required children to attend school from the ages of 8- to 14-years-old. As a result, by 1910 72 percent of American children attended school. Half the nation's children attended one-room schools. In 1918, every state required students to complete elementary school. Lessons consisted of students reading aloud from their texts such as the ''[[McGuffey Readers]]'', and placed emphasis on rote memorization. Teachers often used physical punishment, such as hitting students on the knuckles with switches, for incorrect answers. This was in a context in which families also used physical punishment in rearing children, more generally than in later 20th century practice.
===Assimilation===
As the nation was majority Protestant in the 19th century, most states passed a constitutional amendment, called [[Blaine Amendments]], forbidding tax money be used to fund [[parochial schools]]. There was anti-Catholic sentiment related to heavy immigration from Catholic Ireland after the 1840s, and a feeling that Catholic children should be educated in public schools to become American. Irish established parochial schools not only to protect their religion, but their culture.<ref> Walch (1996)</ref>

Because public schools focused on [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]], some immigrants (mostly Catholics and German Lutherans) organized and funded their own schools. Catholic communities also raised money to build colleges and seminaries to train teachers and religious to head their churches.<ref>Walch (1996)</ref><ref>Dennis Clark, ''The Irish in Philadelphia: Ten Generations of Urban Experience'', (1984), pp.96-101</ref> The most numerous early Catholics were Irish immigrants in the early to mid-19th century, followed by [[Germans]], [[Italians]] and other Catholics from southern and eastern Europe. By the time the later groups immigrated, the Irish had built an extensive network of churches and schools in many cities. The Irish dominated the hierarchy of the American Catholic Church for generations. Though the private schools met some opposition, as in the [[Bennett Law]] in Wisconsin in 1890, in 1925 the US Supreme Court ruled in ''[[Pierce v. Society of Sisters]]'' that students could attend private schools to comply with compulsory education laws.

It was not until 1910 that many American towns began providing high schools. By 1940, 50% of young adults had earned a high school diploma.<ref>Jurgen Herbst, ''The Once and Future School: Three Hundred and Fifty Years of American Secondary Education'' (1996)</ref>


===The "High School Movement"===
At the dawn of the 20th century, for the first time in history, leaders believed that the [[post-literacy]] schooling of the masses at the secondary and higher levels, would greatly enhance economic production. This “high school movement” in the United States radically changed the education of its youth and set the nation apart from those of Europe for much of the twentieth century.<ref>Jurgen Herbst, ''The Once and Future School: Three Hundred and Fifty Years of American Secondary Education'' (1996)</ref>

After 1900 American high schools grew rapidly in number and size, reaching out to a broader clientele. It provided necessary credentials for youth planning to teach school, and useful credentials for those planning careers in white collar work and some high-paying blue collar jobs. Economist [[Claudia Goldin]] argues the incredible growth of secondary schooling was facilitated by public funding, openness, gender neutrality, local (and also state) control, [[separation of church and state]], and an academic curriculum. The wealthiest European nations such as Germany and Britain had more exclusivity to their education system and few youth attended past age 14. Apart from technical training schools, European secondary schooling was dominated by children of the wealthy and the social elites.<ref>
| authorlink = Goldin, Claudia
| title = "The Human-Capital Century and American Leadership: Virtues of the Past"
| journal = The Journal of Economic History
| volume = 61
| pages = 263–290
|date=June 2001
| doi = 10.1017/S0022050701028017
| author = Goldin, Claudia}}</ref>

The United States chose a type of post-elementary schooling consistent with its particular features — stressing flexible, general and widely applicable skills that were not tied to particular occupations and geographic places had great value in giving students options in their lives. Skills had to survive transport across firms, industries, occupations, and geography in the dynamic American economy.

Support for the high school movement occurred at the grass-roots level of local cities and school systems. The federal government involvement included vocational education funding after 1916. States and religious bodies funded teacher training colleges.

Public schools were funded and supervised by independent districts that depended on taxpayer support. In dramatic contrast to the centralized systems in Europe, where national agencies made the major decisions, the American districts designed their own rules and curricula. <ref> Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, ''The Race between Education and Technology'' (2008)</ref>

===College preparation===
In the 1865-1914 era, the number and character of schools changed to meet the demands of new and larger cities and of new immigrants strange to American ways, and to adjust to the new spirit of reform permeating the country. High schools increased in number, adjusted their curriculum to prepare students for the growing state and private universities; education at all levels began to offer more utilitarian studies in place of an emphasis on the classics. [[John Dewey]] and other Progressives advocated changes from their base in teachers' colleges.<ref> Lawrence A. Cremin, ''American Education: The Metropolitan Experience, 1876-1980'' (1990)</ref>

Before 1920 most secondary education, whether private or public, emphasized college entry for a select few headed for college. Proficiency in Greek and Latin was emphasized. [[Abraham Flexner]], under commission from the philanthropic General Education Board (GEB) wrote ''A Modern School'' (1916) calling for a deemphasis on the classics. The classics teachers fought back in a losing effort.<ref> William G. Wraga, "The Assault on 'The Assault on Humanism': Classicists Respond to Abraham Flexner's 'A Modern School'" ''Historical Studies in Education'' 2008 20(1): 1-31</ref>

German was preferred as a second, spoken language prior to World War I. An anti-German attitude that resulted from the war, promoted French as a second language instead. French survived as the second language of choice until the 1960s, when Spanish became popular.<ref> John L. Watzke, ''Lasting Change in Foreign Language Education: A Historical Case for Change in National Policy'' (2003)</ref>
===Higher education===
At the beginning of the 20th century, fewer than 1,000 colleges with 160,000 students existed in the United States. Explosive growth in the number of colleges occurred at the end of the 1800s and early twentieth century. Philanthropists endowed many of these institutions. Wealthy philanthropists for example, established [[Stanford University]], [[Vanderbilt University]] and [[Duke University]]; [[John D. Rockefeller]] funded the [[University of Chicago]] without imposing his name on it.<ref> Laurence Veysey, ''The Emergence of the American University'' (1965) </ref>
====Land Grant Universities====
Each state used federal funding from the [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]]s of 1862 and 1890 to set up "[[land grant colleges]]" that specialized in agriculture and engineering.

The 1890 act created all-black land grant colleges, which were dedicated primarily to teacher training. They also made important contributions to rural development, including the establishment of a traveling school program by [[Tuskegee Institute]] in 1906. Rural conferences sponsored by Tuskegee also attempted to improve the life of rural blacks. In recent years, the 1890 schools have helped train many students from less-developed countries who return home with the ability to improve agricultural production. <ref> B. D. Mayberry, ''A Century of Agriculture in the 1890 Land Grant Institutions and Tuskegee University, 1890-1990'' (1991)</ref>

Among the first were [[Purdue University]], [[Michigan State University]], [[Kansas State University]], [[Cornell University]] (in New York), [[Texas A&M University]], [[Pennsylvania State University]], [[Ohio State University|The Ohio State University]] and the [[University of California]]. Few alumni became farmers, but they did play an increasingly important role in the larger food industry, especially after the Extension system was set up in 1916 that put trained agronomists in every agricultural county.

The engineering graduates played a major role in rapid technological developmentAlan I. Marcus, ed., ''Engineering in a Land Grant Context: The Past, Present, and Future of an Idea. Marcus'' (2005) </ref> Indeed, the land-grant college system produced the agricultural scientists and industrial engineers who constituted the critical human resources of the managerial revolution in government and business, 1862-1917, laying the foundation of the world's preeminent educational infrastructure that supported the world's foremost technology-based economy.<ref> Louis Ferleger and William Lazonick, "Higher Education for an Innovative Economy: Land-grant Colleges and the Managerial Revolution in America," ''Business & Economic History'' 1994 23(1): 116-128</ref>

Representative was Pennsylvania State University. The Farmers' High School of Pennsylvania (later the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania and then Pennsylvania State University), chartered in 1855, was intended to uphold declining agrarian values and show farmers ways to prosper through more productive farming. Students were to build character and meet a part of their expenses by performing agricultural labor. By 1875 the compulsory labor requirement was dropped, but male students were to have an hour a day of military training in order to meet the requirements of the Morrill Land Grant College Act. In the early years the agricultural curriculum was not well developed, and politicians in Harrisburg often considered it a costly and useless experiment. The college was a center of middle-class values that served to help young people on their journey to white-collar occupations.<ref> Jim Weeks, "A New Race of Farmers: the Labor Rule, the Farmers' High School, and the Origins of the Pennsylvania State University," ''Pennsylvania History'' 1995 62(1): 5-30,</ref>

====GI Bill====
Following [[World War II]], the [[GI Bill]] made college education possible for many veterans by paying tuition and living expenses. It helped create a widespread belief in the necessity of college education. It opened up higher education to millions of ambitious young men who would otherwise have been forced to immediately enter the job market. Most campuses became overwhelmingly male thanks to the GI Bill; by the end of the century women had reached parity in numbers.<ref> Glenn Altschuler and Stuart Blumin, ''The GI Bill: The New Deal for Veterans'' (2009)</ref>

===Segregation and inequality===
[[File:Educational separation in the US prior to Brown Map.svg|thumb|300px|Segregation laws in the United States prior to ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'']]
For much of its history, education in the United States was segregated (or even only available) based upon race. Early integrated schools such as the [[Noyes Academy]], founded in 1835, in [[Canaan, New Hampshire]], were generally met with fierce local opposition. For the most part, African Americans received very little to no formal education before the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. Some free blacks in [[the North]] managed to become literate.

In the [[U.S. southern states|South]] where [[slavery]] was legal, many states had laws prohibiting teaching enslaved African Americans to read or write. A few taught themselves, others learned from white playmates or more generous masters, but most were not able to learn to read and write. Schools for free people of color were privately run and supported, as were most of the limited schools for white children. Poor white children did not attend school. The wealthier planters hired tutors for their children and sent them to private academies and colleges at the appropriate age.

During [[Reconstruction era in the United States|Reconstruction]] a coalition of [[freedmen]] and [[Republican Party (United States)|white Republicans]] in Southern state legislatures passed laws establishing [[public education]]. The [[Freedman's Bureau]] was created as an agency of the military governments that managed Reconstruction. It set up schools in many areas and tried to help to help educate and protect freedmen during the transition after the war. With the notable exception of the [[desegregated public schools in New Orleans]], the schools were segregated by race. By 1900 more than 30,000 black teachers had been trained and put to work in the South, and the literacy rate had climbed to more than 50%, a major achievement in little more than a generation.<ref>James D. Anderson, ''The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935'', (1988), pp. 244-245</ref>

Many colleges were set up for blacks; some were state schools like [[Booker T. Washington]]'s [[Tuskegee Institute]] in Alabama, others were private ones subsidized by Northern missionary societies.

Although the African-American community quickly began litigation to challenge such provisions, in the 19th century [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] challenges generally were not decided in their favor. The [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] case of ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' (1896) upheld the segregation of races in schools as long as each race enjoyed parity in quality of education (the "separate but equal" principle). However, few black students received equal education. They suffered for decades from inadequate funding, outmoded or dilapidated facilities, and deficient textbooks (often ones previously used in white schools).<!---it would be nice if we could have a referenced sentence here that explained that blacks could not get equality implicitly promised by Plessy. and why.--->

Starting in 1914 and going into the 1930s, [[Julius Rosenwald]], a philanthropist from Chicago, established the [[Rosenwald Fund]] to provide seed money for matching local contributions and stimulating the construction of new schools for African American children, mostly in the rural South. He worked in association with [[Booker T. Washington]] and architects at [[Tuskegee University]] to have model plans created for schools and teacher housing. With the requirement that money had to be raised by both blacks and whites, and schools approved by local school boards (controlled by whites), Rosenwald stimulated construction of more than 5,000 schools built across the South. In addition to Northern philanthrops and state taxes, African Americans went to extraordinary efforts to raise money for such schools. <ref> Anderson ''Black Education in the South, 1880-1935'' pp.158-161</ref>

The [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|Civil Rights Movement]] of the 1950s and 1960s helped publicize the inequities of segregation. In 1954, the Supreme Court in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' unanimously declared that separate facilities were inherently unequal and unconstitutional. By the 1970s segregated districts had practically vanished in the South.

Integration of schools has been a protracted process, however, with results affected by vast population migrations in many areas, and affected by suburban sprawl, the disappearance of industrial jobs, and movement of jobs out of former industrial cities of the North and Midwest and into new areas of the South. Although required by court order, integrating the first black students in the South met with intense opposition. In 1957 the integration of [[Little Rock Central High School|Central High School]] in [[Little Rock]], [[Arkansas]], had to be enforced by federal troops. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] took control of the [[United States National Guard|National Guard]], after the governor tried to use them to prevent integration. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, integration continued with varying degrees of difficulty. Some states and cities tried to overcome ''de facto'' segregation, a result of housing patterns, by using [[desegregation busing in the United States|forced busing]]. This method of integrating student populations provoked resistance in many places, including northern cities, where parents wanted children educated in neighborhood schools.

Although full equality and parity in education has still to be achieved (many school districts are technically still under the integration mandates of local courts), technical equality in education had been achieved by 1970.<ref>[http://www.thejacksonchannel.com/news/6805285/detail.html Madison Desegregation Hearing To Be Held Tuesday, TheJacksonChannel], accessed February 14, 2006.</ref>

The comparative quality of education among black and white students, however, is still often the subject of dispute. While middle class African-American children have made good progress; poor minorities have struggled. With school systems based on property taxes, there are wide disparities in funding between wealthy suburbs or districts, and often poor, inner-city areas or small towns. "De facto segregation" has been difficult to overcome as residential neighborhoods have remained more segregated than workplaces or public facilities. Racial segregation has not been the only factor in inequities. Residents in [[New Hampshire]] challenged property tax funding because of steep contrasts between education funds in wealthy and poorer areas. They filed lawsuits to seek a system to provide more equal funding of school systems across the state.

Some scholars believe that transformation of the Pell Grant program to a loan program in the early 1980s has caused an increase in the gap between the growth rates of white, Asian-American and African-American college graduates since the 1970s.<ref name="Dealing with Diversity">{{cite book | last =Adams | first =J.Q. | authorlink = | coauthors =Pearlie Strother-Adams | year =2001 | title =Dealing with Diversity | publisher =Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company | location =Chicago, IL | isbn = 0-7872-8145-X}}</ref> Others believe the issue is increasingly related more to class and family capacity than ethnicity. Some school systems have used economics to create a different way to identify populations in need of supplemental help.

In 1975 Congress passed Public Law 94-142, Education of the Handicapped Act. One of the most comprehensive laws in the history of education in the United States, this Act brought together several pieces of state and federal legislation, making free, appropriate education available to all eligible students with a disability. The law was amended in 1986 to extend its coverage to include younger children. In 1990 the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) extended its definitions and changed the label "handicap" to "disabilities". Further procedural changes were amended to IDEA in 1997.

==Current policy==
No Child Left Behind (as amended in 2004) was an amendment to the 1997 IDEA legislation. According to the National Center for Learning Disabilities, "For the nation's 2.9 million students with identified specific learning disabilities currently receiving special education services under IDEA, the challenging new provisions of NCLB create expanded opportunities for improved academic achievement and documentation of that improved performance." <ref>[http://www.ncld.org/content/view/284/322]</ref>
The National Center for Learning Disabilities has issued a report on the effect of NCLB on special eduction.<ref>[http://www.ncld.org/images/stories/OnCapitolHill/PolicyRelatedPublications/RewardsandRoadblocks/RewardsandRoadblocks.pdf]</ref>

Nowhere in this document, however, does it mention that virtually all these students have the questions, choices, and passages read to them on the English language portions and a calculator and even possibly a formula chart on the math portions of state standardized tests. There are other "accommodations" that can be implemented if a part of a student's IEP, such as extra time to take a test. The moderate increase in scores is commensurate with the time line regarding broad implementation of these accommodations.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}<!---sounds [[WP:OR]] without [[WP:RELY]] [[WP:FOOT]]--->

==Notes==
<references/>

==Externals==
<!--This monster list badly needs pruning. No one can possibly read or use it. What does "recent" mean? Does "recent" mean "better"? That might be considered pov--->
===Bibliography===
''for more detailed bibliography see [[History of Education in the United States: Bibliography]]''
====Surveys====
*Button, H. Warren and Provenzo, Eugene F., Jr. ''History of Education and Culture in America.'' Prentice-Hall, 1983. 379 pp.
*Cremin, Lawrence A. ''American Education: The Colonial Experience, 1607–1783.'' (1970); ''American Education: The National Experience, 1783–1876.'' (1980); ''American Education: The Metropolitan Experience, 1876-1980'' (1990); standard 3 vol detailed scholarly history
*Curti, M. E. ''The social ideas of American educators, with new chapter on the last twenty-five years.'' (1959).
*Herbst, Juergen. ''The once and future school: Three hundred and fifty years of American secondary education.'' (1996).
*Herbst, Juergen. ''School Choice and School Governance: A Historical Study of the United States and Germany'' 2006. ISBN 1-4039-7302-4.
*Lucas, C. J. ''American higher education: A history.'' (1994). pp.; reprinted essays from ''History of Education Quarterly''
*McClellan, B. Edward and Reese, William J., ed. ''The Social History of American Education.'' U. of Illinois Pr., 1988. 370 pp.; reprinted essays from ''History of Education Quarterly''
*David Nasaw; ''Schooled to Order: A Social History of Public Schooling in the United States'' (1981) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=61723639 online version]
*Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann. ''Transitions in American Education: A Social History of Teaching.'' Routledge, 2001. 242 pp.
*Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann. ''The Emergence of the Common School in the U.S. Countryside.'' Edwin Mellen, 1998. 192 pp.
*Rury, John L.; ''Education and Social Change: Themes in the History of American Schooling.'; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2002. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104343399 online version]
*Spring, Joel. ''The American School: From the Puritans to No Child Left Behind.'' 7th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2008. 494 pp.
*Theobald, Paul. ''Call School: Rural Education in the Midwest to 1918.'' Southern Illinois U. Pr., 1995. 246 pp.
*David B. Tyack. ''The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education'' (1974),
*Tyack, David B., & Hansot, E. ''Managers of virtue: Public school leadership in America, 1820–1980.'' (1982).

====Pre 1880====
*Axtell, J. ''The school upon a hill: Education and society in colonial New England.'' Yale University Press. (1974).
*Cremin, Lawrence A. ''American Education: The Colonial Experience, 1607–1783.'' (1970); ''American Education: The National Experience, 1783–1876.'' (1980);
*Parkerson, Donald H. and Parkerson, Jo Ann. ''The Emergence of the Common School in the U.S. Countryside.'' Edwin Mellen, 1998. 192 pp.
*Reese, William J. ''The Origins of the American High School''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.

====Since 1880====
*Maurice R. Berube; ''American School Reform: Progressive, Equity, and Excellence Movements, 1883-1993.'' 1994. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=23149656 online version]
*Brint, S., & Karabel, J. ''The Diverted Dream: Community colleges and the promise of educational opportunity in America, 1900–1985.'' Oxford University Press. (1989).
*Cremin, Lawrence A. ''The transformation of the school: Progressivism in American education, 1876–1957.'' (1961).
*Cremin, Lawrence A. ''American Education: The Metropolitan Experience, 1876-1980'' (1990); vol 3 of standard detailed scholarly history
*Gatto, John Taylor. ''The Underground History of American Education: An Intimate Investigation into the Prison of Modern Schooling.'' Oxford Village Press, 2001, 412 pp. [http://www.johntaylorgatto.com/underground/index.htm online version]
*Krug, Edward A. ''The shaping of the American high school, 1880–1920.'' (1964); ''The American high school, 1920–1940.'' (1972). standard 2 vol scholarly history
*Peterson, Paul E. ''The politics of school reform, 1870–1940.'' (1985).
*Ravitch, Diane. ''Left Back: A Century of Failed School Reforms.'' Simon & Schuster, 2000. 555 pp.
*Theobald, Paul. ''Call School: Rural Education in the Midwest to 1918.'' Southern Illinois U. Pr., 1995. 246 pp.
*Tyack, David B. ''The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education'' (1974),
*Tyack, David and Cuban, Larry. ''Tinkering toward Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform.'' Harvard U. Pr., 1995. 184 pp.
*Tyack, David B., & Hansot, E. ''Managers of virtue: Public school leadership in America, 1820–1980.'' (1982).

====Ethnicity, race, gender, religion====
*Walter R. Allen, Joseph O. Jewell; "African American Education since 'An American Dilemma'" ''Daedalus,'' Vol. 124, 1995 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5000281309 online version]
*James D. Anderson, ''The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935'' (University of North Carolina Press, 1988). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=54406292 online edition]
*Eisenmann, Linda ed. ''Historical Dictionary of Women's Education in the United States.'' (1998)
*MacDonald, Victoria-Maria. ''Latino Education in the United States: A Narrated History from 1513-2000'' (2004)
*Nash, Margaret A. ''Women's Education in the United States, 1780-1840'' (2005)
*Sanders, James W ''The education of an urban minority: Catholics in Chicago, 1833–1965.'' (1977).
*Solomon, Barbara M. ''In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education in America.'' (1985).
*Walch, Timothy. ''Parish School: American Catholic Parochial Education from Colonial Times to the Present.'' 1996.

====Higher education====
*Brint, S., & Karabel, J. ''The Diverted Dream: Community colleges and the promise of educational opportunity in America, 1900–1985.'' Oxford University Press. (1989).
*Geiger, Roger L., ed. ''The American College in the Nineteenth Century''. Vanderbilt University Press. (2000).
*Geiger, Roger L. ''To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities, 1900-1940''. Oxford University Press. (1986).
*Geiger, Roger L. ''Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II''. Oxford University Press. (2001).
*Horowitz, Helen L. ''Campus life: Undergraduate cultures from the end of the eighteenth century to the present.'' (1987).
*Levine, D. O. ''The American college and the culture of aspiration, 1915–1940.'' (1986).
*Lucas, C. J. ''American higher education: A history.'' (1994).
*Veysey Lawrence R. ''The emergence of the American university.'' (1965).

====Regional and local studies====
*Edgar W. Knight; ''Education in the South'' (1924) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=89261938 online edition]
*Lazerson, Marvin; ''Origins of the Urban School: Public Education in Massachusetts, 1870-1915'' Harvard University Press, 1971 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=51915416 online version]
*Leloudis, J. L. ''Schooling the New South: Pedagogy, self, and society in North Carolina, 1880–1920.'' (1996). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=94841854 online version]
*Troen, Selwyn K.; ''The Public and the Schools: Shaping the St. Louis System, 1838-1920'' (1975) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98077476 online version]

====Primary sources====
* Richard Hofstadter and C. Dewitt Hardy, eds; ''The Development and Scope of Higher Education in the United States'' (1952) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100591148 online edition]
* Knight, Edgar W. and Clifton L. Hall, eds.; ''Readings in American Educational History'' (1951) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=95504276 online edition]

====Recent====
*[[Gatto, John Taylor]]. ''The Underground History of American Education.'' (2003) [http://www.johntaylorgatto.com/chapters/index.htm online edition]
*John E. Chubb and Terry M. Moe. ''Politics, Markets and America's Schools'' (1990)
*Kosar, Kevin R. ''Failing Grades: The Federal Politics of Education Standards.'' Rienner, 2005. 259 pp.
*E. Wayne Ross et al. eds. ''Defending Public Schools.'' (Praeger, 2004), 4 vol: Volume: 1: ''Education Under the Security State'' (2004) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106679023 online version]; Volume: 2: ''Teaching for a Democratic Society'' (2004) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106679363 online version]; Volume: 3: ''Curriculum Continuity and Change in the 21st Century'' (2004) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106679652 online version]; Volume: 4: The Nature and Limits of Standards-Based Reform and Assessment'' (2004) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106679962 online version]
*Tyack, David. ''Seeking Common Ground: Public Schools in a Diverse Society.'' Harvard U. Pr., 2003. 237 pp.

====Journals====
*[[American Educational History Journal]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Education In The United States}}
[[Category:Social history of the United States]]
[[Category:Cultural history of the United States]]
[[Category:History of education in the United States|*]]

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