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'''Immigration''' refers to the legal movement of people between one country and another. While immigration people has existed throughout human history, immigration implies long-term, legal and permanent residence. (and often eventual [[citizenship]]) by the immigrants: [[tourism|tourists]] and short-term visitors are not considered immigrants (see [[expatriate]]). However, seasonal labour migration (typically for periods of less than a year) is often treated as a form of legal immigration. The global volume of immigration is high in absolute terms, but low in relative terms. The International Integration and Refugee Association estimated 190 million international migrants in [[2005]], about 3 percent of global population. The other 97 percent still live in the state in which they were born, or its successor state. The Middle East, some parts of Europe, little areas of South East Asia, and a few spots in the West Indies have the highest numbers of immigration population recorded by the UN Census 2005. |
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The modern idea of immigration is related to the development of nation-states and [[nationality law]]. [[Citizenship]] of a nation-state confers an inalienable right of residence in that state, but residence of immigrants is subject to conditions set by [[immigration law]]. The nation-state made immigration a political issue: by definition it is the homeland of a [[nation]] defined by shared ethnicity and/or culture. [[Illegal immigration]] refers to immigration across national borders in a way that violates the immigration laws of the destination country. Under this definition, an illegal immigrant is a foreigner who either illegally crossed an international political border, be it by land, sea or air, or a foreigner who legally entered a country but nevertheless overstays his visa in order to live and/or work therein. |
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== Global statistics == |
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{{see also|List of countries by immigrant population}} |
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The [[European Union]] allows free travel between member states with the appropriate papers. Most immigrants are from former eastern bloc states to the developed western European states, especially to Italy, Spain, Germany and Britain. Noticeably, some countries seemed to be favoured by these new EU member nationals than others. For example, there are large numbers of [[Poles]] who have moved to the [[UK]], [[Ireland]] and [[Netherlands]], while [[Romanians]] have chosen [[Italy]] and [[Spain]].{{fact|date=December 2007}} While [[France]] and [[Germany]] put in place controls to curb Eastern European migration, the UK (along with Ireland) did not impose restrictions. |
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Following [[Poland]]'s entry into the EU in May 2004 it is estimated that by the start of 2007 375,000 Poles have registered to work in the UK, although the total Polish population in the UK is believed to be 750,000. Many Poles work in seasonal occupations and a large number are likely to move back and forth including between Ireland and other EU Western nations.<ref>[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,,2110192,00.html 750,000 and rising: how Polish workers have built a home in Britain].</ref> |
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According to [[Eurostat]],<ref>[http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2006/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2006_MONTH_05/3-19052006-EN-AP.PDF Eurostat News Release on Immigration in EU]</ref> Some EU member states are currently receiving large-scale immigration: for instance [[Spain]], where the economy has created more than half of all the new jobs in the EU over the past five years.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/spain/article/0,,1830838,00.html Guardian Article on Spanish Immigration]</ref> The EU, in 2005, had an overall net gain from international migration of +1.8 million people. This accounts for almost 85% of Europe's total population growth in 2005.<ref>[http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?ID=402 Europe: Population and Migration in 2005]</ref> In 2004, total 140,033 people immigrated to [[France]]. Of them, 90,250 were from [[Africa]] and 13,710 from [[Europe]].<ref>[http://www.migrationinformation.org/datahub/countrydata/data.cfm Inflow of third-country nationals by country of nationality]</ref> In 2005, immigration fell slightly to 135,890.<ref>[http://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/France_Elections050307.pdf Immigration and the 2007 French Presidential Elections]</ref> In recent years, immigration has accounted for more than half of [[Norway]]'s population growth. In 2006, Statistics Norway's (SSB) counted a record 45,800 immigrants arriving in Norway — 30% higher than 2005.<ref>[http://www.workpermit.com/news/2007-05-08/norway/record-immigration-statistics-2006.htm Immigration to Norway increasing]</ref> At the beginning of 2007, there were 415,300 persons in Norway with an immigrant background (i.e. immigrants, or born of immigrant parents), comprising 8.3 per cent of the total population.<ref>[http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/02/01/10/innvbef_en/ Immigrant population]</ref> |
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[[Canada]] has the [[Immigration to Canada#Immigration rate|highest per capita net immigration rate in the world]],<ref name="highest immigration">{{cite web |author=Benjamin Dolin and Margaret Young, Law and Government Division |publisher=Library of Parliament |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/PRBpubs/bp190-e.htm |
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|title=Canada's Immigration Program |date=[[2004-10-31]]|accessdate=2006-11-29}}</ref> driven by [[Economic impact of immigration to Canada|economic policy]] and [[Immigration to Canada#Immigration categories|family reunification]]. In 2001, 250,640 people immigrated to Canada. Newcomers settle mostly in the major urban areas of [[Toronto]], [[Vancouver]] and [[Montreal]]. By the 1990s and 2000s, a majority of Canada's immigrants came from [[Asia]].<ref>[http://www.migrationinformation.org/datahub/countrydata/country.cfm Inflow of foreign-born population by country of birth, by year]</ref> Canadian society is often depicted as being a very progressive, diverse, and [[multicultural]]. Accusing a person of racism in Canada is usually considered a serious slur.<ref>{{Citation|last = Fontaine|first = Phil|author-link = Phil Fontaine|url = http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/asp/gateway.asp?hr=/en/lp/lo/lswe/we/special_projects/RacismFreeInitiative/speeches/Fontaine.shtml&hs=|title = Modern Racism in Canada by Phil Fontaine|place = Queen's University|date = Friday, April 24, 1998}}</ref> All political parties are now cautious about criticising of the high level of immigration, because, as noted by the [[Globe and Mail]], "in the early 1990s, the old [[Reform Party of Canada|Reform Party]] was branded 'racist' for suggesting that immigration levels be lowered from 250,000 to 150,000."<ref name=Globevolpe>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/Page/document/v4/sub/MarketingPage?user_URL=http://www.theglobeandmail.com%2Fservlet%2Fstory%2FRTGAM.20051212.wxsmart12%2FBNStory%2FspecialDecision2006%2F&ord=1155737424463&brand=theglobeandmail&force_login=true Is the current model of immigration the best one for Canada?], [[Globe and Mail]], 12 December 2005, URL accessed 16 August 2006</ref> |
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[[Japan]] accepted just 16 [[refugees]] in 1999, while the [[United States]] took in 85,010 for resettlement, according to the UNHCR. [[New Zealand]], which is smaller than Japan, accepted 1,140 refugees in 1999. Just 305 persons were recognized as refugees by Japan from 1981, when Japan ratified the [[U.N.]] [[Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees]], to 2002. <ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0WDQ/is_2003_Feb_24/ai_98002254 Japan's refugee policy]</ref> <ref>[http://www.iwanami.co.jp/jpworld/text/ClosedCountry01.html Questioning Japan's 'Closed Country' Policy on Refugees]</ref> Japanese Minister [[Taro Aso]] has called Japan a "one race" nation.<ref>[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/member/member.html?nn20051018a7.htm Aso says Japan is nation of 'one race']</ref> |
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In 2004 the number of people who became [[United Kingdom|British]] citizens rose to a record 140,795 - a rise of 12% on the previous year. This number had risen dramatically since 2000. The overwhelming majority of new citizens come from [[Africa]] (32%) and [[Asia]] (40%), the largest three groups being people from [[Pakistan]], [[India]] and [[Somalia]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4706862.stm BBC Thousands in UK citizenship queue]</ref> In 2005, an estimated 565,000 migrants arrived to live in the UK for at least a year, most of the migrants were people from [[Asia]], the [[Indian sub-continent]] and [[Africa]],<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/11/02/uimmigrants5005.xml 1,500 immigrants arrive in Britain daily, report says]</ref> while 380,000 people emigrated from the UK for a year or more, with [[Australia]], [[Spain]] and [[France]] most popular destinations.<ref>[http://www.aol.in/news/story/2007042004189012000001/index.html Indians largest group among new immigrants to UK]</ref> |
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British emigration towards [[Southern Europe]] is of special relevance. Citizens from the European Union make up a growing proportion of immigrants in [[Spain]]. They mainly come from countries like the UK and Germany, but the British case is of special interest due to its magnitude. The British authorities estimate that the real population of UK citizens living in Spain is much larger than Spanish official figures suggest, establishing them at about 1.000.000, about 800.000 being permanent residents. According to the ''Financial Times'', Spain is the most favoured destination for West Europeans considering to move from their own country and seek jobs elsewhere in the EU.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/brits_abroad/html/europe.stm BBC article: Brits Abroad]</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6161705.stm BBC article: Btits Abroad Country by Country]</ref><ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/spain/article/0,,1830838,00.html Guardian article: Spain attracts record levels of immigrants seeking jobs and sun]</ref><ref>[http://www.byebyeblighty.com/1/british-immigrants-swamping-spanish-villages/ Bye Bye Blighty article: British Immigrants Swamping Spanish Villages?]</ref><ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/spain/article/0,,1588156,00.html Guardian article: An Englishman's home is his casa as thousands go south]</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6210358.stm BCC article: 5.5m Britons 'opt to live abroad']</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/5237236.stm BBC article: More Britons consider move abroad ]</ref> |
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Since 2000, [[Spain]] has absorbed around 4 million immigrants, adding 10% to its population. Immigrant population now tops over 4.5 million. According to residence permit data for 2005, about 500,000 were [[Morocco|Moroccan]], another 500,000 were [[Ecuador]]ian, more than 200,000 were [[Romania]]n, and 260,000 were [[Colombia]]n. In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people.<ref>[http://www.ine.es/prodyser/pubweb/anuario06/anu06_02demog.pdf Instituto Nacional de Estadística: Avance del Padrón Municipal a 1 de enero de 2006. Datos provisionales]</ref><ref>[http://www.imdiversity.com/villages/hispanic/world_international/pns_immigration_shift_1204.asp Immigration Shift: Many Latin Americans Choosing Spain Over U.S.]</ref><ref>[http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/07_21/b4035066.htm Spain: Immigrants Welcome]</ref><ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/14628564/site/newsweek/page/0/ Immigrants Fuel Europe's Civilization Clash]</ref><ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/22/news/spain.php Spanish youth clash with immigrant gangs ]</ref> |
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The overall level of immigration to [[Australia]] has grown substantially during the last decade. Net overseas migration increased from 30,000 in 1993<ref name="abs">Australian Bureau of Statistics, [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/0BD75000987B71A0CA256F7200832F19?Open International migration]</ref> to 118,000 in 2003-04.<ref name="abs2">Australian Bureau of Statistics, [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/036835783E0F360CCA256FCD0072AB46 3101.0 Australian Demographic Statistics]</ref> The largest components of immigration are the skilled migration and family re-union programs. In recent years the [[mandatory detention in Australia|mandatory detention]] of [[unauthorised arrival]]s [[boat people|by boat]] has generated great levels of controversy. During the 2004-05, total 123,424 people immigrated to Australia. Of them, 17,736 were from [[Africa]], 54,804 from [[Asia]], 21,131 from [[Oceania]], 18,220 from [[United Kingdom]], 1,506 from [[South America]], and 2,369 from [[Eastern Europe]].<ref>[http://www.migrationinformation.org/datahub/countrydata/country.cfm Inflow of foreign-born population by country of birth, by year]</ref> 131,000 people migrated to Australia in 2005-06<ref>[http://www.minister.immi.gov.au/media/media-releases/2006/v06297.htm Settler numbers on the rise]</ref> and migration target for 2006-07 was 144,000.<ref>[http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/20planning.htm Australian Immigration Fact Sheet 20. Migration Program Planning Levels]</ref> |
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[[New Zealand]] has relatively open [[Immigration to New Zealand|immigration policies]]. 23% of the population was born overseas, mainly in [[Asia]], [[Oceania]], and [[UK]], one of the highest rates in the world. In 2004-2005, a target of 45,000 immigrants was set by the New Zealand immigration Service and represented 1.5% of the total population. According to the 2001 census projections, by 2050 57% of all New Zealand children will have [[Maori]] or [[Polynesians|Pacific]] ancestry, while 68% will be non-European. |
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== Immigration to the United States == |
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The U.S. has often been called the "melting pot." The name is delivered from United States' rich tradition of immigrants coming to the US looking for something better and having their cultures melded and incorporated into the fabric of the country. Most of them did not possess wealth or power in their home countries. Most were not highly educated. Other than these few commonalities of what they didn't possess, their backgrounds were vastly different. The thread, however, that bound these immigrants together was their vision of improving their current situation. Emma Lazarus, in a poem entitled "The New Colossus," which is inscribed on the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty tells of the invitation extended to those wanting to make the US their home. "… Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breath free…" (Encyclopedia Americana, 1998, Vol. 25, 637) |
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While recent immigration patterns have changed; the reasons have not. Individuals and families still come to the United States with a vision of improving their lives. The backgrounds of today's immigrants expanded beyond the European Borders. Today they come from all over the world. At a 1984 oath-taking ceremony in Los Angeles, there were nearly a thousand individuals from the Philippines, 890 from Mexico, 704 from Vietnam, 110 from Lebanon, 126 from the United Kingdom, and 62 from Israel. Although not as large a number, there were also individuals from Lithuania, Zimbabwe, and Tanzania. (Luedtke, 1992, 3) |
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After 2000, [[immigration to the USA|legal immigrants]] to the [[United States]] |
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numbered approximately 1,000,000 per year. In 2006, 1.27 million immigrants were granted [[legal residence]]. |
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[[Mexico]] has been the leading source of new U.S. residents for over two decades; and since 1998, |
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[[China]], [[India]] and the [[Philippines]] have been in the top four sending countries every year.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.migrationinformation.org/datahub/countrydata/data.cfm | title = United States: Top Ten Sending Countries, By Country of Birth, 1986 to 2006 (table available by menu selection) | publisher = Migration Policy Institute|date =2007| accessdate = 2007-07-05}}</ref> |
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In [[California]], non-Hispanic whites slipped from 80% of the state's population in 1970 to 43% in 2006.<ref>[http://www.poynter.org/column.asp?id=58&aid=111344 The Best Story of Our Lives]</ref><ref>[http://www.statesman.com/opinion/content/editorial/stories/insight/07/08/0708diversity.html?cxtype=rss&cxsvc=7&cxcat=45 Beneath the surface, Americans are deeply ambivalent about diversity]</ref> By one account, the actual number of annual [[immigration in the United States|legal immigrants]] was estimated at 500,000 to 600,000 in 1989. This subsequently increased and is now well over 1 million annually, not including illegal migration or temporary work visas. Net [[illegal immigration]] also soared from about 130,000 per year in the 1970s to as high as 1,500,000 per year in 2006. Bureau figures show the U.S. population grew by 2.8 million between July 1, 2004, and July 1, 2005.<ref>[http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/population/006808.html U.S. Census Bureau: Nation's Population One-Third Minority]</ref> Census statistics also show that 45% of children under age 5 are from a [[Racial demographics of the United States|racial or ethnic minority]].<ref>[http://www.prb.org/Articles/2006/IntheNewsUSPopulationIsNowOneThirdMinority.aspx?p=1 U.S. Population Is Now One-Third Minority - Population Reference Bureau]</ref> |
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Since [[World War II]], more [[refugees]] have found homes in the U.S. than any other nation and more than 2 million [[Immigration to the United States#Asylum for refugees|refugees]] have arrived in the U.S. since 1980. Of the top ten countries accepting resettled refugees in 2006, the United States accepted more than twice as much as the next nine countries combined, although some smaller countries accept more refugees per capita. |
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Twenty cities, including [[Los Angeles]], [[San Francisco]], [[San Diego]], [[Chicago]], [[Miami]], [[Denver]], [[Seattle]] and [[Portland, Maine|Portland]], have adopted "[[sanctuary]]" ordinances banning police from asking people about their immigration status. If current birth and immigration rates were to remain unchanged for another 60 to 70 years, US population would double to some 600 million people. <ref>[http://www.migrationinformation.org/datahub/countrydata/country.cfm Inflow of foreign-born population by country of birth, by year]</ref> The actual number of admitted [[refugees]] rose in subsequent years with ceiling for 2006 at 70,000. A May 25, 2007 article notes that in the past seven months only 69 people from [[Refugees of Iraq|Iraq]] have been granted refugee status in the United States.<ref> [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/opinion/317322_mcfeatters27.html "Iraq refugees find no refuge in America."] By Ann McFeatters. ''[[Seattle Post-Intelligencer]].'' May 25, 2007.</ref> |
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== Causes == |
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Theories of immigration traditionally distinguish between '''[[Push and pull factors|push factors]]''' and '''[[Push and pull factors|pull factors]]'''.<ref>See the NIDI/[[Eurostat]] '''push and pull study''' for details and examples: [http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/web/html/pushpull/index.html]</ref> Push factors refer primarily to the motive for [[emigration]] from the country of origin. In the case of economic migration (usually labour migration), differentials in [[wage rate]]s are prominent. Poor individuals from less developed countries ''can'' have far higher standards of living in developed countries than in their originating countries. Escape from [[poverty]] (personal or for relatives staying behind) is a traditional push factor, the availability of [[employment|jobs]] is the related pull factor. [[Natural disasters]] and [[overpopulation]] can amplify poverty-driven migration flows. This kind of migration may be [[illegal immigration]] in the destination country (emigration is also illegal in some countries, such as [[North Korea]]). |
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Emigration and immigration are sometimes mandatory in a contract of employment: religious [[Missionary|missionaries]], and employees of [[transnational corporations]], international [[non-governmental organisations]] and the [[diplomatic service]] can expect to work 'overseas'. They are often referred to as '[[expatriates]]', and their conditions of employment are typically equal to or better than those applying in the host country (for similar work). |
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For some migrants, [[education]] is the primary pull factor (although most [[international students]] are not classified as immigrants, but may choose to do so if they refuse to return). [[Retirement]] migration from rich countries to lower-cost countries with better [[climate]], is a new type of international migration. Examples include immigration of retired [[United Kingdom|British]] citizens to [[Spain]] or [[Italy]] and of retired [[Canadian]] citizens to the [[US]] (mainly to the state of [[Florida]]). |
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{{clarifyme|the following sentence is too long!!}} |
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Some, although relatively few, immigrants justify their drive to be in a different country for cultural or health related reasons and very seldom, again in relative quantitative terms compared to the actual number of international migrants world-wide, choose to migrate as a form of self-expression towards the establishment or to satisfy their need to directly perceive other cultural environments because economics is almost always the primary motivator for constant, long-term, or permanent migration, but especially for that type of inter-regional or inter-continental migration; that holds true even for people from developed countries. |
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Non-economic push factors include [[persecution]] (religious and otherwise), frequent [[abuse]], [[bullying]], [[oppression]], [[ethnic cleansing]] and even [[genocide]], and risks to civilians during [[war]]. Political motives traditionally motivate refugee flows - to escape [[dictatorship]] for instance. |
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Some migration is for personal reasons, |
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based on a [[Interpersonal relationship|relationship]] (e.g. to be with family or a partner), such as in [[family reunification]] or [[transnational marriage]]. In a few cases, an individual may wish to emigrate to a new country in a form of transferred [[patriotism]]. Evasion of [[criminal justice]] (e.g. avoiding [[arrest]]) is a (mostly negative) personal motivation. This type of emigration and immigration is not normally legal, if a crime is internationally recognized, although criminals may disguise their identities or find other loopholes to evade detection. There have been cases, for example, of those who might be guilty of war crimes disguising themselves as victims of war or conflict and then pursuing asylum in a different country. |
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Barriers to immigration come not only in legal form; natural barriers to immigration can also be very powerful. Immigrants when leaving their country also leave everything familiar: their family, friends, support network, and culture. They also need to liquidate their assets often at a large cost, and incur the expense of moving. When they arrive in a new country this is often with many uncertainties including finding work, where to live, new laws, new cultural norms, language or accent issues, possible [[racism]] and other exclusionary behaviour towards them and their family. These barriers act to limit international migration (scenarios where populations move ''en masse'' to other continents, creating huge population surges, and their associated strain on infrastructure and services, ignore these inherent limits on migration.) |
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== Differing perspectives == |
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Immigration is often highly politicized, and in some countries, a major political issue. |
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=== Supporting arguments === |
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==== General arguments ==== |
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The main arguments cited in support of immigration are economic arguments, such as a free labor market, and cultural arguments appealing to the value of [[cultural diversity]]. Some groups also support immigration as a device to boost small population numbers, like in [[New Zealand]] and [[Canada]], or, like in Europe, to reverse demographic aging trends. |
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Support for fully open borders is limited to a minority. Some [[free-market]] [[libertarian]]s believe that a [[free immigration|free global labour market]] with no restrictions on immigration would, in the long run, boost global [[prosperity]]. There are also groups which oppose border controls on ideological grounds - believing that people from poor countries should be allowed to enter rich countries, to benefit from their higher standards of living. Others are advocates of [[world government]] and wish to eliminate or severely limit the power of [[nation-states]]. This includes the nation-state's ability to grant and deny individuals entry across borders, which advocates of world government generally view as arbitrary and unfair distinctions made on what should be one planet earth, thus eliminating diversity and competition among states. |
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==== Economic arguments ==== |
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Countries like New Zealand, which has experimented with both qualifications- and job-offer-based entry systems, have reported that under the latter system (where much weight is put on the immigrant already having a job offer), the immigrants actually show a much lower uptake of government benefits than the normal population. Under a mostly qualification-based system, many highly trained doctors and engineers had instead been reduced to driving taxis. |
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=== Opposing arguments === |
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The main anti-immigration themes include costs of migrants (potential free-riding on existing welfare systems), labor competition; environmental issues (the impact of population growth); national security (concerns of insular immigrant groups & terrorism against the host country); lack of coordination & cooperation among citizens (differences of language, conventions, culture); and the loss of national identity and culture (including the nature of the [[nation-state]] itself). |
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==== Health arguments ==== |
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Immigration from areas of high incidence is thought to have fueled the resurgence of [[tuberculosis]] (TB), [[chagas]], [[hepatitis]], and [[leprosy]] in areas of low incidence. To reduce the risk of [[infectious diseases#Mortality from infectious diseases|diseases]] in low-incidence areas, the main countermeasure has been the screening of immigrants on arrival.<ref>[http://0-www.cdc.gov.mill1.sjlibrary.org/ncidod/eid/vol11no05/04-1107.htm Tuberculosis among US Immigrants]</ref> According to [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]], TB cases among foreign-born individuals remain disproportionately high, at nearly nine times the rate of U.S.-born persons. In 2003, nearly 26 percent of foreign-born TB patients in the United States were from [[Mexico]]. Another third of the foreign-born cases were among those from the [[Philippines]], [[Vietnam]], [[India]] and [[China]], the CDC report said.<ref>[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=43384 Is CDC covering up skyrocketing TB rate?]</ref><ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol8no7/01-0482.htm CDC - Persistent High Incidence of Tuberculosis in Immigrants in a Low-Incidence Country]</ref><ref>[http://www.newswithviews.com/Wooldridge/frosty9.htm Leprosy, Hepatitis and Tuberculosis Rising Fast in United States]</ref> |
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The history of [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] in the [[United States]] began in about 1969, when HIV likely entered the United States through a single infected immigrant from |
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[[Haiti]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7068574.stm |title=Key HIV strain 'came from Haiti' |first=Neil |last=Bowdler |publisher=BBC |date=[[2007-10-30]]}}</ref><ref>[http://www.latimes.com/news/science/la-sci-aids30oct30,0,1617683.story?coll=la The virus from Africa reached the U.S. by way of Haiti, a genetic study shows]</ref> |
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==== Economic arguments ==== |
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Economic needs-driven immigration is opposed by labor-market [[protectionism|protectionists]], often arguing from [[economic nationalism]]. The core of their arguments is that a nation's jobs are the 'property' of that nation, and that allowing foreigners to take them is equivalent to a loss of that property. They may also criticise immigration of this type as a form of [[corporate welfare]], where business is indirectly subsidised by government expenditure to promote the immigration and the assimilation of the immigrants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vdare.com/misc/050127_burns_welfare.htm |title=A Progressive Indictment: Immigration Policy and Corporate Welfare |first=Randall |last=Burns |publisher=[[VDARE]] |date=[[2005-01-27]]}}</ref> A more common criticism is that the immigrant [[employee]]s are almost always paid less than a non-immigrant worker in the same job, and that the migration depresses wages, especially as migrants are usually not [[unionisation|unionised]]. Other groups feel that the focus should be not on migration control, but on equal rights for the migrants, to avoid their exploitation. |
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Arguments against the cost of migration - for instance the provision of schools for the additional population - are prominent in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], see [[Economic impact of immigration to Canada]], although much current research has pointed to the fact that the U.S. and Canada are actually dependent on migrant labor, see [[The Center for U.S. - Mexico Immigration Analysis]]. |
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Scholars have come to various opinions about the economic effects of immigration. Those who find that immigrants produce a negative effect on the US economy often focus on the difference between taxes paid and government services received and wage-lowering effects among low-skilled native workers.<ref>[http://www.npc.umich.edu/publications/policy_briefs/brief8/ National Poverty Center - The University of Michigan]</ref><ref>[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2003055714_latinosvblacks12m.html The Seattle Times: Some blacks say Latino immigrants taking their jobs]</ref> The economic impact of immigration differs by immigration category. For example, according to [[Statistics Canada]], there are significant differences in the labour force participation rates. 2001 labour statistics by immigration category:<ref name=StatCan1>[http://www.statcan.ca/english/freepub/89-614-XIE/2005001/tables/table8.5.htm Immigrants' labour force rates, by immigration category, 2001], [[Statistics Canada]], URL accessed 2 July 2006</ref> |
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{|class="wikitable" |
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!Labour force rates |
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!Family |
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!Skilled worker principal applicants |
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!Skilled worker dependants |
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!Other economic |
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!Refugees |
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!All immigrants |
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|---- |
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!Participation rate |
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!59% |
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!91% |
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!63% |
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!48% |
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!44% |
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!70% |
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|---- |
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!Employment rate |
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!39% |
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!60% |
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!36% |
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!29% |
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!21% |
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!44% |
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|---- |
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!Unemployment rate |
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!34% |
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!34% |
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!43% |
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!40% |
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!51% |
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!37% |
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|---- |
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!Rank of total number of immigrants in 2005<ref name=CIC1>[http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/statistics/facts2006/facts2006_category.asp Annual Immigration by Category], [[Citizenship and Immigration Canada]], URL accessed 2 July 2006</ref> |
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!2nd |
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!3rd |
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!1st |
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!5th |
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!4th |
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! |
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:<small>Data source: Statistics Canada, 2001, Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada.</small> |
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:<small>For clarity: Employment Rate = Participation Rate * (1 - Unemployment Rate)</small> |
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In 2001, the overall unemployment rate of immigrants was 37%. Combined with the overall participation rate of 70%, this means that only 44% of landed immigrants aged 15 years and higher were working in 2001 (i.e., a majority of 56% were not working). The 44% employment rate was significantly lower than the average 2001 employment rate in Canada of 61%.<ref name=CdnEcon>[http://www.canadianeconomy.gc.ca/english/economy/employment.html Employment Rate] [[Government of Canada]], Employment Concepts, URL accessed 19 May 2007</ref> Immigrant unemployment levels do not reduce to the Canadian average during at least the first 10 years of residing in Canada.<ref name=CLBC>[http://www.clbc.ca/files/Reports/Fitting_In/Transition_Penalty_e-CLBC.pdf The Transition Penalty: Unemployment Among Recent Immigrants to Canada], CLBC Commentary, [[Canadian Labour and Business Centre]], July 2003, URL Accessed 13 September 2006</ref> |
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Employment statistics also bring into question whether skilled worker immigrants, with a 34% unemployment rate,<ref name=StatCan1>[http://www.statcan.ca/english/freepub/89-614-XIE/2005001/tables/table8.5.htm Immigrants' labour force rates, by immigration category, 2001], [[Statistics Canada]], URL accessed 2 July 2006</ref> are successfully meeting existing labour market needs in Canada, and [[Statistics Canada]] explains that although progress was made in reducing poverty with pre-1990 residents of Canada (as measured by the ''low-income rate''), this progress was more than offset by the income profile of new immigrants, resulting in a net widening of the [[income inequality]] gap in Canada during the [[1990s]].<ref name=PicotHou>[http://dissemination.statcan.ca/english/research/11F0019MIE/11F0019MIE2003198.pdf The rise in low-income rates among immigrants in Canada], Analytical Studies Branch research paper series, [[Statistics Canada]], June 2003, URL accessed 20 September 2006</ref> And a more recent 2007 Statistics Canada study shows that the income profile of recent immigrants deteriorated by yet another significant amount from 2000 to 2004.<ref name=PicotHouUpdated>[http://www.statcan.ca/english/research/11F0019MIE/11F0019MIE2007294.pdf Chronic Low Income and Low-income Dynamics Among Recent Immigrants], [[Statistics Canada]], January 2007, URL accessed 30 January 2007</ref> Another Statistics Canada study also shows that immigration reduces overall wage levels in Canada.<ref name=wagelevels>[http://www.statcan.ca/english/freepub/89-001-XIE/89-001-XIE2007001.pdf The Impact of Immigration on Labour Markets in Canada, Mexico, and the United States], [[Statistics Canada]], Update on Family and Labour Studies, May 2007, URL Accessed 26 May 2007</ref> |
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==== Nationalistic arguments ==== |
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Non-economic opposition to immigration is closely associated with [[nationalism]], in Europe a 'nationalist party' is almost a [[synonym]] for 'anti-immigration party'.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Although traditionally, economic arguments dominated the [[United States]] immigration debate, it has become more polarized in recent years, as evidenced by demands to [[militarization|deploy the military]] to the US borders.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} The emergence of [[Minuteman Project|private border militias]] in the United States has attracted much media attention.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Nevertheless, the southern border of the [[European Union]] in the Spanish [[exclave]]s of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]] has Spanish military and paramilitary Guardia Civil patrols while the US-Mexico is still patrolled by civilian police forces.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} |
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Like their [[Korean people|Korean]] neighbors, [[Japanese people|Japanese]] tend to equate [[nationality]] or [[citizenship]] with membership in a single, homogeneous [[ethnic group]] or [[race]].<ref>[http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/at_japan_soc/ Contemporary Japan: Society and Culture]</ref> A shared language and culture also are viewed as important elements in Japanese identity. The idea of multiracial or multiethnic nations, like [[Australia]], [[Brazil]], [[Canada]], [[Netherlands]], or the [[United States]], strikes many Japanese as odd or even contradictory. Both [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]] are among the world's most ethnically homogeneous nations.<ref>[http://www.lclark.edu/~krauss/advwrf99/causeeffect/akikocause.html Ijime: A Social Illness of Japan by Akiko Dogakinai]</ref> Those who were identified as different might be considered "polluted" —- the category applied historically to the [[Castes|outcasts]] of Japan, particularly the hisabetsu buraku, "discriminated communities," often called [[burakumin]], a term some find offensive —- and thus not suitable as marriage partners or employees.<ref>[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104119365 Burakumin in contemporary Japan]</ref> Men or women of [[multiracial|mixed ancestry]], those with family histories of certain diseases, and [[Demography of Japan|foreigners]], and members of [[minority groups]] faced [[discrimination]] in a variety of forms. In 2005, a [[United Nations]] report expressed concerns about racism in Japan and that government recognition of the depth of the problem was not total.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unic.or.jp/new/pr05-057-E.htm |title=Press Conference by Mr Doudou Diène, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights |accessdate=2007-01-05}}</ref><ref name="BBC">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4671687.stm "Japan racism 'deep and profound".] [[BBC News]] ([[2005-07-11]]). Retrieved on [[2007-01-05]].</ref> The author of the report, [[Doudou Diène]] ([[United Nations Special Rapporteur|Special Rapporteur]] of the [[UN Commission on Human Rights]]), concluded after a nine-day investigation that racial discrimination and xenophobia in Japan primarily affects three groups: [[Ethnic issues in Japan#Japanese minorities|national minorities]], [[Dekasegi|Latin American immigrants of Japanese descent]], mainly [[Japanese Brazilians]], and foreigners from "poor" countries.<ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.imadr.org/geneva/2006/G0610396.pdf |title='Overcoming "Marginalization" and "Invisibility"', International Movement against all forms of Discrimination and Racism |accessdate=2007-01-05}}</ref> |
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The primary argument of some nationalist opponents in Europe and Asia is that immigrants simply do not belong in a nation-state which is by definition intended for another [[ethnic group]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}} France, therefore, is for the French, Germany is for the Germans, Japan is for the Japanese, and so on. Immigration is seen as altering the ethnic and cultural composition of the national population, and consequently the national character.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} From a nationalist perspective, high-volume immigration potentially distorts or dilutes their national culture more than is desired or even necessary.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Germany, for example, was indeed intended as a state for Germans: the state's policy of mass immigration was not foreseen by the 19th-century nationalist movements.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} Immigration has forced Germany and other western European states to re-examine their national identity: part of the population is not prepared to redefine it to include immigrants.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} It is this type of opposition to immigration which generated support for anti-immigration parties such as [[Vlaams Belang]] in Belgium, the [[British National Party]] in Britain, the [[Lega Nord]] in Italy, the [[Front National]] in France, and the [[Lijst Pim Fortuyn]] in the Netherlands.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} |
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One of the responses of nation-states to mass immigration is to promote the [[cultural assimilation]] of immigrants into the national community, and their integration into the political, social, and economic structures.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} In the United States, cultural assimilation is traditionally seen as a process taking place among minorities themselves, the '[[melting pot]]'.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} In Europe, where [[nation-state]]s have a tradition of national unification by cultural and linguistic policies, variants of these policies have been proposed to accelerate the assimilation of immigrants.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} The introduction of citizenship tests for immigrants is the most visible form of state-promoted assimilation.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} The test usually include some form of language exam, and some countries have reintroduced forms of language [[prohibition]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}} |
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==== Environmentalist arguments ==== |
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[[Environmentalist]] opposition to immigration is prominent in [[Canada]], which has the largest absolute numbers of immigrants. Responses to immigration are a controversial topic among environmental activists, especially within the [[Sierra Club]]. Some oppose the immigration-driven population growth in the United States as [[sustainability|unsustainable]], and advocate immigration reduction. Other environmentalists see [[overpopulation]] and environmental degradation as global problems, that should be addressed by other methods. Most European countries do not have the high population growth of the United States, and some experience [[population decline]]. In such circumstances, the effect of immigration is to reduce decline, or delay its onset, rather than substantially increase the population. The [[Republic of Ireland]] is one of the only EU countries comparable to the United States in this respect, since large-scale immigration contributed to substantial population growth.<ref>2006 Censuis, [http://www.cso.ie/census/documents/2006_prelim_table07.pdf]</ref> [[Spain]] has also witnessed a recent boost in population due to high immigration.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8032818 Huddled against the masses] ''The Economist'', Retrieved November 17, 2006</ref> |
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Some members of the Australian [[environmental movement]], notably the organisation [[Sustainable Population Australia]], believe that as the driest inhabited continent, [[Australia]] cannot continue to sustain its current rate of [[Immigration to Australia|population growth]] without becoming overpopulated.<ref>[http://www.population.org.au/ population.org.au :: Sustainable Population Australia]</ref> The [[United Kingdom|UK]]-based [[Optimum Population Trust]] supports the view that Australia is overpopulated, and believes that to maintain the current [[standard of living]] in Australia, the optimum population is 10 million (rather than the present 20.86 million), or 21 million with a reduced standard of living.<ref>[http://www.optimumpopulation.org/ Optimum Population Trust]</ref> |
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The USA constitutes approximately 5% of the [[world population|world's population]], but creates about 27% of the world's economy<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_%28nominal%29]</ref>. In so doing, it consumes about 25% of [[Natural resource|world's resources]],<ref>[http://www.illinoisrecycles.org/facts.html Illinois Recycling Association Recycling Facts]</ref> including approximately 26% of the [[Energy use in the United States|world's energy]],<ref>[http://www.solarenergy.org/resources/energyfacts.html SEI: Energy Consumption]</ref> although having only around 3% of the world's known [[United States oil politics|oil reserves]],<ref>[http://www.nrdc.org/air/energy/fensec.asp NRDC: Reducing U.S. Oil Dependence]</ref> and generate approximately 30% of [[waste|world's waste]].<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.oregon.gov/DAS/FAC/docs/ww092001.pdf Waste Watcher]|62.9 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 64487 bytes -->}}</ref> <ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2006/08/31/alarm_sounds_on_us_population_boom/ Alarm sounds on US population boom - The Boston Globe]</ref> The average American's impact on the [[Natural environment|environment]] is approximately 250 times greater than the average [[African people|Sub-Saharan African]]'s.<ref>[http://www.mindfully.org/Sustainability/Consumption-Industrialized-Commercialized.htm Consumption Industrialized, Commercialized, Dehumanized, and Deadly]</ref> <ref>[http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2006/Update59.htm October 4, 2006: U.S. Population Reaches 300 Million, Heading for 400 Million: No Cause for Celebration]</ref> |
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In other words, with current consumption patterns, [[population growth]] in the [[United States]] is more of a threat to the Earth's environment than population growth in any other part of the world (currently, at least 1.8 million legal and illegal immigrants settle in the United States each year; with the average [[Hispanics in the United States|Hispanic]] woman giving [[total fertility rate|birth]] to 3 children in her lifetime).<ref>[http://www.medicalnewsservice.com/fullstory.cfm?fback=yes&storyID=818 Women Are Having More Children - MedicalNewsService.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.ushba.org/ushispanics.php?chapter=0 Welcome to United States Hispanic Business Association! -USHispanics]</ref> |
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[[California]] population continues to grow by more than a half million a year and is expected to reach 48 million in 2030. According to the [[California Department of Water Resources]], if more supplies aren't found by 2020, residents will face a [[water crisis|water shortfall]] nearly as great as the amount consumed today.<ref>[http://www.globalpolicy.org/ngos/role/policymk/conf/2002/0827water.htm A World Without Water -Global Policy Forum- NGOs]</ref> [[Los Angeles]] is a coastal desert able to support at most 1 million people on its own water; the Los Angeles basin now is the core of a [[megacity]] that spans 220 miles from [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] to the [[Mexican border]]. The region's population is expected to reach 22 million by 2020, and 28 million in 2035. The population of California continues to grow by more than a half million a year and is expected to reach 48 million in 2030. [[Water shortage]] issues are likely to arise well before then.<ref>[http://www.fairus.org/site/PageServer?pagename=iic_immigrationissuecenters19af Immigration & U.S. Water Supply]</ref> California is considering using energy-expensive [[desalination]] to solve this problem.<ref>[http://www.contracostatimes.com/portlet/article/html/fragments/print_article.jsp?articleId=6057081&siteId=571 State looks to the sea for drinkable water]</ref> |
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[[U.S. Census Bureau]] figures show the [[U.S. population]] grew by 2.8 million between July 1, 2004, and July 1, 2005. If current [[List of countries and territories by fertility rate|birth rate]] and immigration rates were to remain unchanged for another 60 to 70 years, US population would double to approximately 600 million people.<ref>[http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=061001224856.fnpklj9e&show_article=1 US population to pass 300 million milestone]</ref> The Census Bureau's latest estimates actually go as high as predicting that there will be 1 billion [[United States|Americans]] in 2100.<ref>[http://www.hireimmigrants.ca/articles/1billionAmericans.htm 1 billion Americans]</ref> United States had approximately one million people in 1700, and approximately five million in 1800.<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1594/is_6_11/ai_67972378 Balancing ACT - population growth E: The Environmental Magazine]</ref> |
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[[Dale Allen Pfeiffer]] claims that to achieve a [[sustainability|sustainable economy]] and avert [[disaster]], the [[United States]] must reduce its population by at least one-third, and [[world population]] will have to be reduced by two-thirds.<ref>[http://www.fromthewilderness.com/free/ww3/100303_eating_oil.html Eating Fossil Fuels]</ref> Current [[U.S. population]] of more than 300 million and world population exceeding 6.6 billion is, according to Pfeiffer, [[sustainability|unsustainable]]. Fast-shrinking supplies of [[Peak oil|oil]] and [[gas]] are essential to modern [[agriculture]],<ref>[http://wolf.readinglitho.co.uk/mainpages/agriculture.html How peak oil could lead to starvation]</ref> so coming decades could see spiraling [[food]] prices without relief and massive [[starvation]] on a global level such as never experienced before by the [[humans]].<ref>[http://www.soilassociation.org/peakoil Peak Oil: the threat to our food security]</ref><ref>[http://europe.theoildrum.com/node/2225 Agriculture Meets Peak Oil]</ref> |
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== As political issue == |
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{{Unreferenced|date=November 2007}} |
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The political debate about immigration is now a feature of most developed countries. Some, such as [[Japan]], traditionally had very little immigration, and it was not a major political issue. Some countries such as [[Italy]], and especially the [[Republic of Ireland]] and [[Spain]], have shifted within a generation, from traditional labor emigration, to mass immigration, and this has become a political issue. Some European countries, such as the United Kingdom and Germany, have seen major immigration since the 1960's and immigration has already been a political issue for decades. Political debates about immigration typically focus on statistics, the immigration law and policy, and the implementation of existing restrictions. In some European countries the debate in the 1990's was focused on asylum seekers, but restrictive policies within the European Union have sharply reduced asylum seekers. In Western Europe the debate focuses on immigration from the Enlargement of the European Union and new member states of the EU, especially from Poland. |
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The politics of immigration have become increasingly associated with others issues, such as [[national security]], [[terrorism]], and in western Europe especially, with the presence of [[Islam]] as a new major religion. Some components of [[conservative]] movements see an unassimilated, economically deprived, and generally hostile immigrant population as a threat to national stability; other elements of [[conservative]] movements welcome immigrant labor. Those with security concerns cite the [[2005 civil unrest in France]] that point to the [[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy]] as an example of the value conflicts arising from immigration of [[Muslims in Western Europe]]. Because of all these associations, immigration has become an emotional political issue in many Western nations. |
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== Ethics == |
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{{Unreferenced|date=November 2007}} |
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Although [[freedom of movement]] is often recognized as a [[civil right]], the freedom only applies to movement within national borders: it may be guaranteed by the [[constitution]] or by human rights legislation. Additionally, this freedom is often limited to [[citizen]]s and excludes others. No [[state]] currently allows full freedom of movement across its borders, and international [[human rights]] treaties do not confer a general right to enter another state. According to Article 13 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], citizens may not be forbidden to leave their country. There is no similar provision regarding entry of non-citizens. Those who reject this distinction on ethical grounds, argue that the freedom of movement both within and between countries is a basic human right, and that the restrictive immigration policies, typical of nation-states, violate this human right of freedom of movement. Such arguments are common among anti-state ideologies like [[anarchism]] and [[libertarianism]]. Note that a right to freedom of entry would not, in itself, guarantee immigrants a job, housing, health care, or citizenship. |
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Where immigration is permitted, it is typically selective. Ethnic selection, such as the [[White Australia policy]], has generally disappeared, but priority is usually given to the educated, skilled, and wealthy. Less privileged individuals, including the mass of poor people in low-income countries, cannot avail of these immigration opportunities. This inequality has also been criticised as conflicting with the principle of [[equal opportunities]], which apply (at least in theory) within democratic nation-states. The fact that the door is closed for the unskilled, while at the same time many developed countries have a huge demand for unskilled labour, is a major factor in [[illegal immigration]]. The contradictory nature of this policy - which specifically disadvantages the unskilled immigrants while exploiting their labour - has also been criticised on ethical grounds. |
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Immigration polices which selectively grant freedom of movement to targeted individuals are intended to produce a net economic gain for the host country. They can also mean net loss for a poor donor country through the loss of the educated minority - the [[brain drain]]. This can exacerbate the [[Global justice|global inequality]] in [[standards of living]] that provided the motivation for the individual to migrate in the first place. An example of the 'competition for skilled labour' is active recruitment of health workers by [[First World]] countries, from the [[Third World]]. |
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== See also == |
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* [[Immigration to Argentina]] |
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* [[Immigration to Australia]] |
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* [[Immigration to Bolivia]] |
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* [[Immigration to Brazil]] |
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* [[Immigration to Canada]] |
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* [[Immigration to France]] |
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* [[Immigration to Greece]] |
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* [[Immigration to Hong Kong]] |
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* [[Immigration to Germany]] |
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* [[Immigration to Japan]] |
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* [[Immigration to Macau]] |
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* [[Illegal immigrants in Malaysia|Immigration to Malaysia]] |
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* [[Immigration to Mexico]] |
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* [[Immigration to New Zealand]] |
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* [[Immigration to Spain]] |
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* [[Immigration to Turkey]] |
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* [[Immigration to the United Kingdom]] |
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* [[Immigration to the United States]] |
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* [[Immigration policy]] |
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* [[Nativism (politics)]] |
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* [[Aliyah]], the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] term for [[Jew]]ish immigration to [[Israel]] |
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* [[Economic impact of immigration to Canada]] |
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* [[Illegal Immigration]] |
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* [[First Generation Immigrant]] |
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* [[Right of foreigners to vote]] |
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* [[The Center for U.S. - Mexico Immigration Analysis]] |
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==References== |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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[http://www.empowerment-migration.net/ Empowerment & Migration] : This site is the interface between the {Empowerment & Migration} project and all those who take an interest in the role played by migrants in today's world. It offers visitors an opportunity to discover events and materials on migration and to contribute their ideas and their stories to the debate on migrants' interaction with the host country and with their homeland. |
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== Further reading == |
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* [http://www.cis.org Center for Immigration Studies] Refer to "Publications" for free research on illegal immigration, demographic trends, terrorism concerns, environmental impact, and many other subjects. |
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* Peter C. Meilander (2001),''Towards a Theory of Immigration'', Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0312240349 |
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* Philippe Legrain ''Immigrants: Your Country Needs Them'', ISBN 0316732486 |
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* Joe Freeman (2007), ''Living and Working in the European Union for Non-EU Nationals'', Lulu.com. ISBN 0-9786254-0-4. |
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* Isabel Valle. ''Fields of Toil: A Migrant Family's Journey'', ISBN 978-0-87422-101-5 |
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* Lorane A. West. ''Color: Latino Voices in the Pacific Northwest'', ISBN 978-0-87422-274-6 |
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* Massey, Douglas S., Arango, Joaquín, Graeme, Hugo, Kouaouci, Ali, Pellegrino, Adela and Taylor, J. Edward (2005), ''Worlds in Motion: Understanding International Migration at the End of the Millennium'', New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-928276-5. |
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* [[Dowell Myers]] (2007), ''[[Immigrants and Boomers: Forging a New Social Contract for the Future of America]]'', Russell Sage Foundation, ISBN 978-0-87154-636-4. |
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* Aristide Zolberg, ''A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America'', Harvard University Press 2006, ISBN 0674022181 |
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* [[Philippe Legrain]], ''Immigrants: Your Country Needs Them'', Little Brown 2007, ISBN 0316732486 |
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* Ruben Rumbaut and Walter Ewing, "The Myth of Immigrant Criminality and the Paradox of Assimilation: Incarceration Rates among Native and Foreign-Born Men," The Immigration Policy Center (Spring 2007). http://www.ailf.org/ipc/special_report/sr_feb07_resources.shtml |
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* Harald Bauder (2006), ''Labor Movement: How Migration Regulates Labor Markets'', New York: Oxford University Press. |
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* Douglas S. Massey, Beyond the Border Buildup: Towards a New Approach to Mexico-U.S. Migration, Immigration Policy Center, the American Immigration Law Foundation [September 2005] http://www.ailf.org/ipc/policy_reports_2005_beyondborder.shtml |
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* Immigration Policy Center, Economic Growth & Immigration: Bridging the Demographic Divide, Immigration Policy Center, the American Immigration Law Foundation [November 2005] http://www.ailf.org/ipc/special_report/special_report2005_bridging.shtml |
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* Walter A. Ewing, Border Insecurity: U.S. Border-Enforcement Policies and National Security, Immigration Policy Center, the American Immigration Law Foundation [Spring 2006] http://www.ailf.org/ipc/border_insecurity_spring06.shtml |
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* Susan C. Pearce, Immigrant Women in the United States: A Demographic Portrait, Immigration Policy Center, the American Immigration Law Foundation [Summer 2006] http://www.ailf.org/ipc/im_women_summer06.shtml |
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* Ruben G. Rumbaut, and Walter A. Ewing, The Myth of Immigrant Criminality and the Paradox of Assimilation: Incarceration Rates Among Native and Foreign-Born Men, Immigration Policy Center, the American Immigration Law Foundation [Spring 2007] http://www.ailf.org/ipc/special_report/sr_feb07.shtml |
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* Jill Esbenshade, Division and Dislocation: Regulating Immigration through Local Housing Ordinances, Immigration Policy Center, the American Immigration Law Foundation [Summer 2007] http://www.ailf.org/ipc/special_report/sr_sept07.shtml |
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* Jeffrey S. Passel and Roberto Suro; Rise, Peak and Decline: Trends in U.S. Immigration; Pew Hispanic Center (Sep. 2005) http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=53 |
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* Jeffrey S. Passel, Senior Research Associate; Estimates of the Size and Characteristics of the Undocumented Population; Pew Hispanic Center (March 2005) http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=44 |
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* Jeffrey S. Passel; Growing Share of Immigrants Choosing Naturalization; Pew Hispanic Center (March 2007) http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=74 |
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== External links == |
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{{external links}} |
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* [http://www.cis.org Center for Immigration Studies] research organization aimed at [[immigration reduction]] with numerous reports available for free |
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* [http://www.pstalker.com/migration/index.htm Stalker's Guide to International Migration] - Comprehensive interactive website on migration |
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* [http://www.casahistoria.net/emigration.htm Casahistoria - European emigration since 1800] - links to 19th & 20th century global European emigration |
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* The Center for U.S. - Mexico Immigration Analysis [http://www.cusmia.org} |
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* [http://www.migrationinformation.org/ Migration Information Source] |
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* [http://www.december18.net/ December 18 vzw]International advocacy and resource centre on the human rights of migrants. |
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* [http://www.americas.org/item_21011 The History of Immigration], by Jorge Majfud |
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* [http://www.eurasylum.org Eurasylum] Many relevant documents on immigration, asylum and refugee policy, and human trafficking/smuggling internationally |
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* [http://www.iom.int/ International Organisation for Migration] |
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* [http://www.unesco.org/migration UNESCO Programme on International Migration and Multicultural Policies] |
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* [http://www.un.org/esa/population/migration UN - International Migration and Development] |
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* [http://www.oecd.org/document/2/0,3343,en_2649_39023663_38060354_1_1_1_1,00.html OECD Migration Data] |
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*[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a23dbdaa-6164-11dc-bf25-0000779fd2ac.html EU told to accept 20m migrant workers] |
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* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/world/04/migration/html/migration_boom.stm BBC News Factfile: Global migration] |
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* [http://cdim.cerium.ca/article921.html The Foreigner and the Right to Justice in the Aftermath of September 11th] François Crépeau, Canada Research Chair in International Migration Law University of Montreal |
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* [http://www.immigrationarchive.com Immigration Newspaper Archive] A collection of more than 50,000 searchable newspaper articles on Immigration. |
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* [http://diplomacymonitor.com/stu/dm.nsf/issued?openform&cat=Migration Migration] on the [[Diplomacy Monitor]] |
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* [http://www.sasi.group.shef.ac.uk/worldmapper/display.php?selected=15 A world map with territory sizes adjusted to the number of immigrants living in those countries] |
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*[http://www.immigrationtest.org/ Information on Immigration to the U.S.] |
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*[http://immigrationdebate.blogspot.com/ US Comprehensive Immigration Debate] US Comprehensive immigration reform. |
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*[http://www.uam.es/otroscentros/TEIM/Observainmigra/obsInmigra_inicio.htm Observatorio de la Inmigración Marroquí en España - TEIM Taller de Estudios Internacionales Mediterráneos - Universidad Autónoma de Madrid] |
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*[http://www.nationmigration.com/forum NationMigration Forum] A user-oriented forum built to help people travel or relocate to a foreign country with ease. It provides valuable information and helpful tips by locals for overseas students, travelers, businessmen and new immigrants. |
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*[http://www.newroutes.org/ New Routes to Community Health. A program of the Robert Wood Johnson and Benton Foundations] |
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*[http://www.informagiovani.vi.it/sistranieri/index.php#INGLESE Si Stranieri - Immigration to Italy Guide] |
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[[Category:Immigration| ]] |
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[[Category:Demography]] |
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[[it:Immigrazione]] |
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[[ms:Imigrasi]] |
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[[nl:Immigratie]] |
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[[ja:移民]] |
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[[no:innvandring]] |
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[[nn:innvandring]] |
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[[pt:Imigração]] |
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[[simple:Immigrant]] |
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[[sr:Имиграција]] |
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[[fi:Maahanmuutto]] |
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[[sv:Invandring]] |
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[[uk:імміграція]] |
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[[zh:移民]] |
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