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White-rumped vulture

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Indian White-rumped Vulture
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Aves
Order:
Accipitriformes
Family:
Accipitridae
Genus:
Gyps
Species:
G. bengalensis
Binomial name
Gyps bengalensis
(Gmelin, 1788)
Former distribution of Gyps bengalensis in red
Synonyms

Pseudogyps bengalensis

The Indian White-rumped Vulture (Gyps bengalensis) is an Old World vulture in the family Accipitridae. It is closely related to the European Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus). At one time it was believed to be closer to the White-backed Vulture of Africa and was known as the Oriental White-backed Vulture. The species was present in large numbers, in Southern and Southeastern Asia until the 1990s.

Numbers of the species declined rapidly in the decades from 1990.[2] As recently as 1985 the species was described as "possibly the most abundant large bird of prey in the world"[3] Once considered a nuisance, the Indian population of White-rumped Vultures is now rare and for every 1,000 White-rumped Vultures recorded in India in 1992, only one remains today.[4]

Description

Underwing pattern of adult

The White-rumped Vulture is a typical vulture, with an unfeathered head and neck, very broad wings and short tail feathers. It is much smaller than European Griffon. It has a white neck ruff. The adult's whitish back, rump and underwing coverts contrast with the otherwise dark plumage. The body is black and the secondaries are silvery grey. The head is tinged in pink and bill is silvery with dark ceres. The nostril openings are slit-like. Juveniles are largely dark and take about four or five years to acquire the adult plumage. In flight, the adults show a dark leading edge of the wing and has a white wing-lining on the underside. The undertail coverts are black.[5]

This is the smallest of the Gyps vultures, but is still a very large bird. It weighs 9b -13 lb, measures 89–93 cm in length,[5] and has a wingspan of 83-88 inches.[6]

This vulture builds its nest on tall trees often near human habitations in northern and central India, Pakistan, Nepal and southeast Asia, laying one egg. Birds form roost colonies. The population is mostly resident.

Like other vultures it is a scavenger, feeding mostly from carcasses of dead animals which it finds by soaring high in thermals and spotting other scavengers. It often moves in flocks. At one time, it was the most numerous of the vultures in India.[5]

Within the well-supported clade of the genus Gyps which includes Asian, African and European populations, it has been determined that this species is basal with the other species being more recent in their species divergence.[7][8]

Behaviour and ecology

These birds are usually inactive until the morning sun has warmed up the air with sufficient thermals to support their soaring. They circle and rise in altitude and join move off in a glide to change thermals. Large numbers were once visible in the late morning skies above Indian cities.[9]

When a kill is found they quickly descend and feed voraciously, and will perch on trees nearby and are known to sometimes descend even after dark to feed on a carcass. In forests, the sight of their soaring was often the indication of a tiger kill.[10][11]

Allan Octavian Hume noted based on the observation of "hundreds of nests" that they always nested on large trees near habitations even when there were convenient cliffs in the vicinity. The preferred nesting trees were Banyan, Peepul, Arjun and Neem. The main nesting period was November to March with eggs being laid mainly in January. Nests are usually in clusters and isolated nests tend to be those of younger birds. Solitary nests are never used regularly and are sometimes taken over by the Red-headed Vulture and large owls such as Bubo coromandus. Nests are nearly 3 feet in diameter and half a foot in thickness. Prior to laying an egg, the nest is lined with green leaves. A single egg is laid which is white with a tinge of bluish-green. Female birds are reported to destroy the nest on loss of an egg. They are usually silent but make hissing and roaring sounds at the nest or when jostling for food.[6]

When feeding at carcasses they are dominated over by King Vultures Sarcogyps calvus.[12]

A freak case of a bird getting caught in the mouth of dying calf and dying trapped within has been noted.[13] Mycoplasmas have been isolated from tissues of the bird.[14] Mallophagan parasites such as Falcolipeurus and Colpocephalum turbinatum[15] have been collected from the species.[16] Ticks, Argas (Persicargas) abdussalami, have been collected in numbers from the roost trees of these vultures in Pakistan.[17] A specimen in captivity lived for at least 12 years.[18]

Jungle Crows have been seen to steal food brought by adults and regurgitated to young.[19] They may sometimes feed on dead vultures of their own species[20] while Egyptian Vultures have also been noted to feed on dead vulture fledgelings.[21]

Status and decline

In the Indian subcontinent

This species was very common, especially in the Gangetic plains of India and often seen nesting on the avenue trees within large cities in the region. Hugh Whistler noted for instance in his guide to the birds of India that it "is the commonest of all the Vultures of India, and must be familiar to those who have visited the Towers of Silence in Bombay."[22] T. C. Jerdon noted that "[T]his is the most common Vulture of India, and is found in immense numbers all over the country, ... At Calcutta one may frequently be seen seated on the bloated corpse of some Hindoo floating up or down with the tide, its wing spread, to assist in steadying it..."[23] Prior to the 1990s they were even seen as a nuisance, particularly to aircraft as they were often involved in bird strikes.[24][25] In 1990, the species had already become rare in Andhra Pradesh in the districts of Guntur and Prakasham. The hunting of the birds for meat by the Bandola (Banda) people there was attributed as a reason. A cyclone in the region during 1990 resulted in numerous livestock deaths and no vultures were found at the carcasses.[26]

This species, as well as the Indian and Slender-billed Vultures have suffered a 99 percent population decrease in India[27] and nearby countries[28] since the early 1990s. The decline has been widely attributed to poisoning by diclofenac, which is used as veterinary non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), leaving traces in cattle carcasses which when fed on leads to kidney failure in birds.[29] Diclofenac was also found to be lethal at low dosages to other species in the genus Gyps.[30][31] Other NSAIDs were also found to be toxic, to Gyps as well as other birds such as storks.[32] Organochlorine pesticide was found from egg and tissue samples from around India varying in concentrations from 0.002 μg/g of DDE in muscles of vulture from Mudumalai to 7.30 μg/g in liver samples from vultures of Delhi. Dieldrin varied from 0.003 and 0.015 μg/g. These pesticide levels have not however been implicated in the decline.[33] Another hypothesis is that they have affected by avian malaria, as implicated in the extinctions of birds in the Hawaiian islands.[34]

Birds were reported to adopt a drooped neck posture and this was considered a symptom of pesticide poisoning,[2] but some studies suggest that this may be a thermoregulatory response since this posture is seen mainly during hot weather.[35]

It has been suggested that rabies cases have increased in India due to the decline.[36]

In South-East Asia

In South-East Asia, the near-total disappearance of the species pre-dated the present diclofenac crisis, and probably resulted from the collapse of large wild ungulate populations and improved management of deceased livestock resulting in a lack of available carcasses for vultures[3]

Conservation

Currently, only the Cambodia and Burma populations are thought to be viable[3] It has been suggested that Meloxicam (another NSAID) as a veterinary substitute that is harmless to vultures would help in the recovery.[37] Campaigns to ban the use of diclofenac in veterinary practice have been underway in several South Asian countries.[38]

Conservation measures have included reintroduction, captive-breeding programs and artificial feeding or "vulture restaurants".[39] Two chicks, which were apparently the first captive-bred Indian White-rumped Vultures ever, hatched in January, 2007, at a facility at Pinjore. However, they died after a few weeks, apparently because their parents were an inexperienced couple breeding for the first time in their lives – a fairly common occurrence in birds of prey.[40]

References

  1. ^ Template:IUCN2008
  2. ^ a b Prakash, V; Pain, D.J; Cunningham, A.A; Donald, P.F; Prakash, N; Verma, A; Gargi, R; Sivakumar, S; Rahmani, A.R (2003). "Catastrophic collapse of Indian white-backed Gyps bengalensis and long-billed Gyps indicus vulture populations". Biological Conservation. 109 (3): 381. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00164-7.
  3. ^ a b c [1]
  4. ^ "New nestlings bring cautious hope for Asia's Threatened vultures".
  5. ^ a b c Rasmussen, PC & JC Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: The Ripley Guide. Vol. 2. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions. pp. 89–90.
  6. ^ a b Hume, A O (1896). My Scrap Book or rough notes on Indian Ornithology. Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta. pp. 26–31.
  7. ^ Johnson JA, Lerner HRL, Rasmussen PC and David P Mindell (2006). "Systematics within Gyps vultures: a clade at risk". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 6: 65. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-6-65.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  8. ^ Seibold, I; Helbig, AJ (1995). "Evolutionary History of New and Old World Vultures Inferred from Nucleotide Sequences of the Mitochondrial Cytochrome b Gene". Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences. 350 (1332): 163–178. doi:10.1098/rstb.1995.0150. ISSN 0962-8436. PMID 8577858. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  9. ^ Cunningham, David Douglas (1903). Some Indian friends and acquaintances. J Murray, London. p. 238.
  10. ^ Gough,W (1936). "Vultures feeding at night". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 38 (3): 624.
  11. ^ Morris, RC (1935). "Vultures feeding at night". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 38 (1): 190.
  12. ^ Morris,RC (1934). "Death of an Elephant Elephas maximus Linn. while calving". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 37 (3): 722.
  13. ^ Greenwood,JAC (1938). "Strange accident to a Vulture". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 40 (2): 330.
  14. ^ Oaks, J. Lindsay, Donahoe, Shannon L., Rurangirwa, Fred R., Rideout, Bruce A., Gilbert, Martin, Virani, Munir Z. (2004). "Identification of a Novel Mycoplasma Species from an Oriental White-Backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis)" (Free full text). J. Clin. Microbiol. 42 (12): 5909–5912. doi:10.1128/JCM.42.12.5909-5912.2004. ISSN 0095-1137. PMID 15583338. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Price, RD & KC Emerson (1966). "New synonymies within the bird lice (Mallophaga)" (PDF). J. Kansas. Ent. Soc. 39 (3): 430–433.
  16. ^ B. K. Tandan (1964). "Mallophaga from birds of the Indian subregion. Part VI Falcolipeurus Bedford". Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London. Series B, Taxonomy. 33 (11–12): 173–180. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3113.1964.tb01599.x. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |doi_brokendate= ignored (|doi-broken-date= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ Hoogstraal, Harry & McCarthy, Vincent C (1965). "The Subgenus Persicargas (Ixodoidea, Argasidae, Argas). 2. A. (P.) abdussalami, New Species, Associated with Wild Birds on Trees and Buildings near Lahore, Pakistan". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 58 (5): 756–762.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Stott Jr., Ken (1948). "Notes on the longevity of captive birds" (PDF). Auk. 65 (3): 402–405.
  19. ^ McCann,Charles (1937). "Curious behaviour of the Jungle Crow (Corvus macrorhynchus) and the White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis)". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 39 (4): 864.
  20. ^ Rana G & V Prakash (2003). "Cannibalism in Indian White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc". 100 (1): 116–117. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  21. ^ Prakash,Vibhu (1988). "Indian Scavenger Vulture (Neophron percnopterus ginginianus) feeding on a dead White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis)". J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 85 (3): 614–615.
  22. ^ Whistler, Hugh (1949). Popular handbook of Indian birds. Gurney & Jackson, London. pp. 354–356. ISBN 1406745766.
  23. ^ Jerdon, TC (1862). The Birds of India. Volume 1. Military Orphan Press. p. 11.
  24. ^ Satheesan SM (1994). "The more serious vulture hits to military aircraft in India between 1980 and 1994.". Bird Strikes Committee Europe, Conference proceedings (PDF). BSCE, Vienna.
  25. ^ Singh, R B (1999) Ecological strategy to prevent vulture menace to aircraft in India. Defence Science Journal 49(2):117-121 PDF
  26. ^ Satheesan, SM & Manjula Satheesan (2000). "Serious vulture-hits to aircraft over the world". International Bird Strike Committee IBSC25/WP-SA3 (PDF). IBSC, Amsterdam.
  27. ^ V. Prakash, R.E. Green, D.J. Pain, S.P. Ranade, S. Saravanan, N. Prakash, R. Venkitachalam, R. Cuthbert, A.R. Rahmani, & A.A. Cunningham (2007). "Recent changes in populations of resident Gyps vultures in India" (PDF). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 104 (2): 129–135.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Barak, Nabin; Tamang, Ramji Gautam Bijay (2005). "Population status and breeding ecology of White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis in Rampur Valley, Nepal" (PDF). Forktail. 21: 87–91.
  29. ^ Green R. E., Newton, I, Shultz, S., Cunningham, A. A., Gilbet, M., Pain, D. J. and Prakash, V. (2004). "Diclofenac poisoning as a cause of vulture population declines across the Indian subcontinent". J.Anim. Ecol. 41: 793–800. doi:10.1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00954.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ Swan, GE; Cuthbert, R; Quevedo, M; Green, RE; Pain, DJ; Bartels, P; Cunningham, AA; Duncan, N; Meharg, AA (2006). "Toxicity of diclofenac to Gyps vultures" (Free full text). Biol. Lett. 2 (2): 279–282. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0425. ISSN 1744-9561. PMID 17148382. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  31. ^ Meteyer, Carol Uphoff, Rideout, Bruce A., Gilbert, Martin, Shivaprasad, H. L., Oaks, J. Lindsay (2005). "Pathology and proposed pathophysiology of diclofenac poisoning in free-living and experimentally exposed oriental white-backed vultures (Gyps bengalensis)". J. Wild. Dis. 41: 707–716.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ Richard Cuthbert, Jemima Parry-Jones, Rhys E Green, and Deborah J Pain (2007). "NSAIDs and scavenging birds: potential impacts beyond Asia's critically endangered vultures". Biol. Lett. 3 (1): 90–93. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0554.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ Muralidharan, S; Dhananjayan, V; Risebrough, R; Prakash, V; Jayakumar, R; Bloom, PH (2008). "Persistent organochlorine pesticide residues in tissues and eggs of white-backed vulture, Gyps bengalensis from different locations in India". Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 81 (6): 561–565. doi:10.1007/s00128-008-9529-z. ISSN 0007-4861. PMID 18806909. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  34. ^ Ajay Poharkar, P. Anuradha Reddy, Vilas A. Gadge, Sunil Kolte, Nitin Kurkure and Sisinthy Shivaj (2009). "Is malaria the cause for decline in the wild population of the Indian White-backed vulture (Gyps bengalensis)?" (PDF). Current Science. 96 (4): 553.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^ Martin Gilbert, Richard T. Watson, Munir Z. Virani, J. Lindsay Oaks, Shakeel Ahmed, Muhammad Jamshed Iqbal Chaudhry, Muhammad Arshad, Shahid Mahmood, Ahmad Ali, and Aleem A. Khan (2007). "Neck-drooping Posture in Oriental White-Backed Vultures (Gyps bengalensis): An Unsuccessful Predictor of Mortality and Its Probable Role in Thermoregulation". Journal of Raptor Research. 41 (1): 35–40. doi:10.3356/0892-1016(2007)41[35:NPIOWV]2.0.CO;2.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ Markandya, Anil; Tim Taylor, Alberto Longo (2008). "Counting the cost of vulture decline—An appraisal of the human health and other benefits of vultures in India". Ecological Economics. 67 (2): 194–204. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.04.020.
  37. ^ Swan, G; Naidoo, V; Cuthbert, R; Green, RE; Pain, DJ; Swarup, D; Prakash, V; Taggart, M; Bekker, L (2006). "Removing the Threat of Diclofenac to Critically Endangered Asian Vultures" (Free full text). PLoS Biology. 4 (3): 395–402. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040066. ISSN 1544-9173. PMID 16435886. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |author= and |last1= specified (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  38. ^ "Local increase in vultures thanks to diclofenac campaign in Nepal". BirdLife International. 2008.
  39. ^ Gilbert, M., Watson, R.T., Ahmed, S., Asim, M., Johnson, J.A. (2007). "Vulture restaurants and their role in reducing diclofenac exposure in Asian vultures". Bird Conservation International. 17 (1): 63–77. doi:10.1017/S0959270906000621.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  40. ^ "First Captive-Bred Asian Vulture Chicks Die". 2007.

Other sources

  • Ahmad, S. 2004. Time activity budget of Oriental White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis) in Punjab, Pakistan. M. Phil. thesis, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan.
  • Grubh, R. B. 1974. The ecology and behaviour of vultures in Gir Forest. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Bombay, Bombay, India.
  • Grubh, R. B. 1988. A comparative study of the ecology and distribution of the Indian White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis) and the Long-billed Vulture (G. indicus) in the Indian region. Pages 2763-2767 in Acta 19 Congressus Internationalis Ornithologici. Volume 2. Ottawa, Canada 22-29 June 1986 (H. Ouellet, Ed.). University of Ottawa Press, Ottawa, Ontario.
  • Eck, S. 1981. [Thanatose beim Bengalgeier (Gyps bengalensis)]. Ornithologische Jahresberichte des Museums Heineanum 5-6:71-73.
  • Naidoo, Vinasan 2008. Diclofenac in Gyps vultures : a molecular mechanism of toxicity. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Pretoria. Fulltext (Includes old photos showing their numbers)
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gyps bengalensis.
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