View source for Indigenous peoples of Mexico

{{Short description|Populations existing prior to the arrival of the Spanish}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Indigenous peoples of Mexico
| native_name      = 
| native_name_lang = 
| image            = Distribución de población indígena en México 2020.svg
| caption          = Indigenous population by municipality in Mexico according to the CDI.
| population       = 
'''Based on identification'''
* '''11,800,247''' identified indigenous Mexicans (population in indigenous households) (9.36%).<ref name="ReferenceD">{{cite web|url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/nueva_estruc/702825198060.pdf|language=es |title=Principales resultados del Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020|website=inegi.org.mx|access-date=3 March 2024}}</ref><ref name="Cuenta.Indigena.Hogar">{{cite web|language=es|website=gob.mx|access-date=3 March 2024|title=Adolescente y Adolescente indígena 
|url=https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/766887/Infografia_adolescente_y_adolescente_indigena_2022_FIN_1.pdf}}</ref><ref name="MEXind">{{cite web|url=https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/696544/15_MEX.pdf|title= Información general de la población, condición de pobreza, marginación y rezago social |website=gob.mx|access-date=2 March 2024|language=es}}</ref><ref group=Note name=Note01/>
* '''23,232,391''' people who culturally self-identify as indigenous (includes Mexicans who are considered [[Mestizos in Mexico|mestizos]]) (19.4%)<ref name="ReferenceD"/><ref group=Note name=Note02/>
<hr>
'''Based on language'''
* '''865,972''' people monolingual in an indigenous language (0.6%) <ref>{{Cite web|title=Inegi 2020 census|url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/doc/Censo2020_Principales_resultados_EUM.pdf |website=inegi.org.mx |access-date=2024-01-06}}</ref>
* '''7,364,645''' people who speak an indigenous language (Including bilinguals in Spanish.) (6.1%)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Población Indígena a Nivel Nacional |url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/doc/Censo2020_Principales_resultados_EUM.pdf |access-date=4 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author-link=National Institute of Indigenous Peoples|year=2020|title=Pueblos Indígenas|url=http://atlas.inpi.gob.mx/pueblos-indigenas/|access-date=2022-01-15|website=Atlas de los Pueblos Indígenas de México. INPI|publisher=Instituto Nacional de los Pueblos Indígenas (National Institute of Indigenous Peoples)|location=Mexico|language=es-MX}}</ref> 
| regions          = [[Yucatán]], [[Oaxaca]], [[Chiapas]], [[Quintana Roo]], [[Campeche]], [[Veracruz]], [[Guerrero]], [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]], [[Puebla]], [[Michoacán]]
| languages        = [[Nahuatl]], [[Yucatec Maya language|Yucatec Maya]], [[Tzotzil language|Tzotzil]], [[Mixtec language|Mixtec]], [[Zapotec languages|Zapotec]], [[Otomi language|Otomi]], [[Huichol language|Huichol]], [[Totonac languages|Totonac]] and another 54 living [[Languages of Mexico|languages along the Mexican territory]], as well as [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| religions        = [[Christianity in Mexico|Christianity]] (predominantly [[Catholic Church in Mexico|Roman Catholic]], with [[Native American religion|Amerindian religious]] elements, including [[Mesoamerican religion]])
| related          = [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] [[Mestizos in Mexico]]
}}
[[File:Gutierrez-Indias.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A painting representing Oaxaca Amerindians by [[Felipe Santiago Gutiérrez]]]]
'''Indigenous peoples of Mexico''' ({{langx|es|gente indígena de México, pueblos indígenas de México}}), '''Native Mexicans''' ({{langx|es|nativos mexicanos}}) or '''Mexican Native Americans''' ({{langx|es|pueblos originarios de México|lit=Original Peoples of Mexico}}), are those who are part of communities that trace their roots back to populations and communities that existed in what is now [[Mexico]] before the arrival of Europeans.

The number of indigenous Mexicans is defined through the second article of the [[Constitution of Mexico|Mexican Constitution]]. The [[Censo General de Población y Vivienda|Mexican census]] does not classify individuals by race, using the [[Culture|cultural]]-[[Ethnic group|ethnicity]] of indigenous communities that preserve their [[indigenous language]]s, traditions, beliefs, and cultures.<ref name="CDI">[http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index2.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=62&Itemid=24 Archived copy]  {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023172638/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index2.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=62&Itemid=24|date=2013-10-23}}</ref> As a result, the count of indigenous peoples in Mexico does not include those of mixed indigenous and European heritage who have not preserved their indigenous cultural practices. Genetic studies have found that most Mexicans are of partial indigenous heritage.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Mitochondrial DNA Landscape of Modern Mexico |date=2021 |pmc=8467843 |language=en |last1=Bodner |first1=M. |last2=Perego |first2=U. A. |last3=Gomez |first3=J. E. |last4=Cerda-Flores |first4=R. M. |last5=Rambaldi Migliore |first5=N. |last6=Woodward |first6=S. R. |last7=Parson |first7=W. |last8=Achilli |first8=A. |journal=Genes |volume=12 |issue=9 |page=1453 |doi=10.3390/genes12091453 |pmid=34573435 |doi-access=free | issn = 2073-4425}}</ref> According to the National Indigenous Institute (INI) and the [[National Institute of Indigenous Peoples]] (CDI), in 2012 the indigenous population was approximately 15 million people, divided into 68 ethnic groups.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gob.mx/inpi/prensa/presenta-cdi-el-atlas-de-los-pueblos-indigenas-de-mexico|title=Presenta CDI el "Atlas de los Pueblos Indígenas de México".|publisher=Instituto Nacional de los Pueblos Indígenas|language=es}}</ref> The 2020 [[Censo General de Población y Vivienda]] reported 11,132,562 people living in households where someone speaks an indigenous language, and 23,232,391 people who were identified as indigenous based on self-identification.<ref name="ReferenceD"/><ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|title=PRESENTACIÓN DE RESULTADOS, INEGI 2020.|url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/doc/Censo2020_Principales_resultados_EUM.pdf}}</ref>

The indigenous population is distributed throughout the territory of Mexico but is especially concentrated in the [[Sierra Madre del Sur]], the [[Yucatán Peninsula]], the [[Sierra Madre Oriental]], the [[Sierra Madre Occidental]], and neighboring areas. The states with the largest indigenous population are [[Oaxaca]] and [[Yucatán]], both having indigenous majorities, with the former having the highest percentage of indigenous population. Since the Spanish colonization, the [[Northern Mexico|North]] and [[Bajío|Bajio]] regions of Mexico have had lower percentages of indigenous peoples, but some notable groups include the [[Rarámuri]], the [[Tepehuán]], the [[Yaqui]]s, and the [[Mayo people|Yoreme]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pueblos indígenas en México : Sistema de Información Cultural-Secretaría de Cultura|url=https://sic.gob.mx/?table=grupo_etnico&disciplina=&estado_id=0|access-date=2021-12-28|website=sic.gob.mx}}</ref>

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== Definition ==
[[File:Boy with chicken and carrots.jpg|upright|thumbnail|right|1896 photograph of an indigenous Mexican boy.]]
In the second article of the [[Constitution of Mexico|Mexican Constitution]], Mexico defines itself as a [[Pluriculturalism|pluricultural]] nation in recognition of the diverse ethnic groups that constitute it and where the [[indigenous peoples]]<ref>"Indigenous Peoples" is the preferred term in Mexico to refer to the Amerindian ethnic groups in North America</ref> are the original foundation.<ref name="cons">[http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.php?idseccion=11&ruta=1 Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331171639/http://constitucion.gob.mx/index.php?idseccion=11&ruta=1 |date=2009-03-31 }} Art. 2</ref> The number of indigenous Mexicans is measured using constitutional criteria.

The category of ''indigena'' (indigenous) can be defined narrowly according to linguistic criteria including only persons that speak one of [[Languages of Mexico|Mexico's 89 indigenous languages]], this is the categorization used by the National Mexican Institute of Statistics. It can also be defined broadly to include all persons who self-identify as having an indigenous cultural background, whether or not they speak the language of the indigenous group they identify with. This means that the percentage of the Mexican population defined as "indigenous" varies according to the definition applied; cultural activists have referred to the usage of the narrow definition of the term for census purposes as "statistical genocide".<ref>Knight (1990:73–74)</ref><ref>Bartolomé (1996:3–4)</ref>

The indigenous peoples in Mexico have the right of free determination under the second article of the constitution. According to this article, indigenous peoples are granted:
* the right to decide the internal forms of social, economic, political, and cultural organization;
* the right to apply [[Usos y costumbres|their own normative systems]] of regulation as long as human rights and gender equality are respected;
* the right to preserve and enrich their languages and cultures;
* the right to elect representatives before the municipal council where their territories are located;

The Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Languages recognizes 89 [[languages of Mexico|indigenous languages]] as national languages, which have the same validity as Spanish in all territories where they are spoken.<ref name="diputados.gob.mx">{{cite web|url=http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/257.pdf |title=Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas |access-date=2014-05-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611011220/http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/257.pdf |archive-date=June 11, 2008 }}</ref> According to the [[National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Data Processing]] (INEGI), approximately 5.4% of the population speaks an indigenous language.<ref name="inegi1">{{cite web|url=http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/rutinas/ept.asp?t=mlen01&c=3325 |title=Indicadores seleccionados sobre la población hablante de lengua indígena, 1950 a 2005 |publisher=Inegi.gob.mx |access-date=2014-05-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924040649/http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/rutinas/ept.asp?t=mlen01&c=3325 |archive-date=2014-09-24 }}</ref> The recognition of indigenous languages and the protection of indigenous cultures is granted not only to the ethnic groups indigenous to modern-day Mexican territory but also to other North American indigenous groups that migrated to Mexico from the United States<ref name="Kikapú">{{cite web |url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=1398 |title=Kikapú |publisher=Cdi.gob.mx |access-date=2014-05-18 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220346/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=1398 |url-status=dead }}</ref> in the nineteenth century and those who immigrated from [[Guatemala]] in the 1980s.<ref name="cdi.gob.mx">{{cite web|url=http://cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=1378 |title=Aguacatecos, cakchiqueles, ixiles, kekchíes, tecos, quichés. (Chiapas) |publisher=Cdi.gob.mx |access-date=2014-05-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926232909/http://cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=1378 |archive-date=2007-09-26 }}</ref>

==History==
===Pre-Columbian civilizations===
{{See also|Pre-Columbian Mexico|Mesoamerican chronology}}

[[Image:Mesoamerica english.PNG|thumb|left|upright=1.5|Mesoamerica and its cultural areas.]]
The [[Pre-Columbian era|prehispanic]] civilizations of what now is known as Mexico are often divided into two regions: [[Mesoamerica]], the cultural area where several complex civilizations developed before the arrival of the [[Spanish people|Spanish]] in the sixteenth century, and [[Aridoamerica]] (or simply "The North"),<ref name="Hamnett">Hamnett, Brian (1999), ''A Concise History of Mexico'', Cambridge University Press; Cambridge, UK</ref> the arid region north of the [[Tropic of Cancer]] which was less densely populated. Despite the conditions, the [[Mogollon culture]] and peoples established urban population centers at [[Casas Grandes]] and [[Cuarenta Casas]] in a vast territory that encompassed northern [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]] state and parts of [[Arizona]] and [[New Mexico]] in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Whalen |first1=Michael E. |last2=Minnis |first2=Paul E. |date=2003 |title=The Local and the Distant in the Origin of Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, Mexico |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-antiquity/article/abs/local-and-the-distant-in-the-origin-of-casas-grandes-chihuahua-mexico/67B2BAE9DD2E95FCD8AD0A15EF44BD5F |journal=American Antiquity |language=en |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=314–332 |doi=10.2307/3557082 |jstor=3557082 |s2cid=164206591 |issn=0002-7316}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=VanPool |first1=Todd L. |last2=Leonard |first2=Robert D. |date=2002 |title=Specialized Ground Stone Production in the Casas Grandes Region of Northern Chihuahua, Mexico |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-antiquity/article/abs/specialized-ground-stone-production-in-the-casas-grandes-region-of-northern-chihuahua-mexico/9E04AA37B492EBABA0312E41E5D60D1B |journal=American Antiquity |language=en |volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=710–730 |doi=10.2307/1593800 |jstor=1593800 |s2cid=164011791 |issn=0002-7316}}</ref>

Mesoamerica was densely populated by diverse indigenous ethnic groups<ref name="Hamnett"/>{{page needed|date=February 2018}}<ref name="aguilar">Manuel Aguilar-Moreno (2004) ''A Handbook to Life in the Aztec World'' Facts of Life, Inc., USA</ref> which, although sharing common cultural characteristics, spoke different languages and developed unique civilizations.

One of the most influential civilizations in Mesoamerica was the [[Olmecs|Olmec]] civilization, sometimes referred to as the "[[Mother culture|Mother Culture]] of Mesoamerica".<ref name="aguilar"/> The later civilization in [[Teotihuacan]] reached its peak around 600 AD when the city possibly became the sixth largest city in the world,<ref name="aguilar"/> whose cultural and theological systems influenced the [[Toltec]] and [[Aztec]] civilizations in later centuries. Evidence has been found on the existence of [[polyethnic]] communities or neighborhoods in Teotihuacan (and other large urban areas like [[Tenochtitlan]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.frogreview.com/quest-aztlan/|title=Contact Us – Frog Review|website=Frogreview.com|access-date=9 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/mexico/ |title=New Tomb at Teotihuacan |publisher=Archaeology.org |access-date=2014-05-18}}</ref>

The [[Maya civilization]], influenced by other Mesoamerican civilizations, developed a vast cultural region in southeast Mexico and northern Central America, while the [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec]] and [[Mixtec]] cultures dominated the [[valley of Oaxaca]] and the [[Purépecha people|Purépecha]] in western Mexico.

==== Trade ====
Scholars agree that significant systems of trading existed between the cultures of [[Mesoamerica]], [[Aridoamerica]] and the [[American Southwest]], and the architectural remains and artifacts share a commonality of knowledge attributed to this trade network. The routes stretched far into Mesoamerica and reached as far north as ancient communities that included such population centers in the United States such as [[Snaketown]],<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1179/0023194014Z.00000000025|title=Pyrite-Encrusted Mirrors at Snaketown and Their External Relationships to Mesoamerica|year=2014|last1=Gallaga|first1=Emiliano|journal=Kiva|volume=79|issue=3|pages=280–299|s2cid=129111669}}</ref> [[Chaco Canyon]], and Ridge Ruin near [[Flagstaff, Arizona|Flagstaff]] (considered some of the finest artifacts ever located).

===Colonial era===
{{Main|New Spain}}
By the time of the arrival of the Spanish in central Mexico, many peoples of Mesoamerica (with the notable exception of the [[Tlaxcaltec]]s and the [[Purépecha people|Purépecha]] Kingdom of [[Michoacán]]) were loosely joined under the [[Aztec Empire]], the last [[Nahua peoples|Nahua]] civilization to flourish in Central Mexico. The capital of the empire, [[Tenochtitlan]], became one of the largest urban centers in the world, with an estimated population of 350,000 inhabitants.<ref name="Hamnett"/>{{page needed|date=February 2018}}
{{Multiple image
| align             = 
| direction         = vertical
| total_width       = 
| image1            = Murales Rivera - Treppenhaus 9 Bücherverbrennung.jpg
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = Mural by Diego Rivera in the [[National Palace of Mexico]] depicting the burning of Maya literature by the catholic church.
| image2            = Malinche Tlaxcala.jpg
| caption2          = A 16th-century manuscript illustrating [[La Malinche]] and the contact between Spaniards and Aztecs.
}}
During the [[conquest of the Aztec Empire]], the Spanish [[conquistador]]s allied with other ethnic groups in the region, including the [[Tlaxcaltec]]s.<ref name="Hamnett"/> This strategy succeeded due to discontent with Aztec rule, which demanded tributes and used [[Flower war|conquered peoples for ritual sacrifice]]. During the following decades, the Spanish consolidated their rule in what became the [[viceroyalty of New Spain]]. Through the [[Valladolid Debate]], the crown recognized the indigenous nobility in [[Mesoamerica]] as nobles, freed indigenous slaves, and kept the existing basic structure of indigenous city-states. Indigenous communities were incorporated as communities under Spanish rule.{{sfn|Gibson|1964}}{{pn|date=January 2024}}

As part of the Spanish incorporation of indigenous into the colonial system, the friars taught indigenous scribes to write their languages in Latin letters so that there is a large corpus of colonial-era documentation in the [[Nahuatl]] language, [[Mixtec]], [[Zapotec languages|Zapotec]], [[Yucatec Maya language|Yucatec Maya]], and others. Such a written tradition likely took hold through existing practices of pictorial writing found in many indigenous [[codices]]. [[New Philology (Latin America)|New Philology]] scholars have utilized the colonial-era alphabetic documentation to illuminate the colonial experience of Mesoamerican peoples from their own viewpoints.{{sfn|Lockhart|1992}}{{pn|date=January 2024}}

[[Image:Posada guadalupe.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Juan Diego]], ''hoja religiosa'', etching by [[José Guadalupe Posada]] (pre-1895).]]
Conquerors awarded labor and tribute under the ''[[encomienda]]'' system benefitted financially. Since Mesoamerican peoples had existing requirements of labor duty and tribute in the pre-conquest era, indigenous officials were involved in maintaining this system in their communities. There was a precipitous decline in indigenous populations, mainly due to the spread of European diseases previously unknown in the America but also through war and forced labor. Pandemics wrought havoc, but indigenous communities recovered with fewer members.<ref name="Hamnett"/>{{page needed|date=February 2018}}{{sfn|Gibson|1964}}{{pn|date=January 2024}}{{sfn|Lockhart|1992}}{{pn|date=January 2024}}

With contact between indigenous populations, Spaniards, [[Slavery in New Spain|African slaves]], and starting in the late sixteenth century, Asian slaves (''chinos'') brought as goods the trade via the [[Manila Galleon]] there was an intermingling of groups, with mixed-race [[castas]], particularly [[mestizo]]s, becoming a component of Spanish cities and to a lesser extent indigenous communities. The Spanish legal structure formally separated what they called the ''República de Indios'' (the republic of Indians) from the ''República de Españoles'' (Republic of Spaniards), with the latter encompassing all those in the Hispanic sphere: Spaniards, Africans, and mixed-race castas. Although Indigenous peoples were marginalized in the colonial system,<ref>[http://www.odiseo.com.mx/2004/07/03lopezflores_colonialismo.htm Colonialismo y modernidad: la enseñanza del español en la Nueva España], "...El racismo y la estratificación de la población de la Nueva España fueron las características de la organización social del Virreinato..."</ref> and often rebelled,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Karttunen |first=Frances |date=1992 |title=After the Conquest: The Survival of Indigenous Patterns of Life and Belief |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20078531 |journal=Journal of World History |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=239–256 |jstor=20078531 |issn=1045-6007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=William B. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/318450645 |title=Embriaguez, homicidio y rebelión en las poblaciones coloniales mexicanas |date=1987 |publisher=Fondo de Cultura Económica |isbn=968-16-2561-7 |location=México |oclc=318450645}}</ref> the paternalistic structure of colonial rule supported the continued existence and structure of indigenous communities. The Spanish crown recognized the existing ruling group, gave protection to the land holdings of indigenous communities, and communities and individuals had access to the Spanish legal system.{{sfn|Gibson|1964}}{{pn|date=January 2024}}{{sfn|Lockhart|1992}}{{pn|date=January 2024}}<ref>Woodrow Borah, ''Justice by Insurance: The General Indian Court of Colonial Mexico and the Legal Aides of the Half-Real'', Berkeley: University of California Press 1983.</ref> However, these codes were often ignored in practice, and racial discrimination was prevalent in New Spain.<ref name="Castellvi Laukamp">{{cite web |last1=Castellvi Laukamp |first1=Luis |date=11 October 2018 |title=Repensar la Hispanidad |url=https://www.elespanol.com/opinion/tribunas/20181011/repensar-hispanidad/344585540_12.html |access-date=2 June 2020 |website=El Español}}</ref><ref name="Keen white legend">{{cite journal |last1=Keen |first1=Benjamin |date=1971 |title=The White Legend Revisited: A Reply to Professor Hanke's "Modest Proposal" |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=336–355 |doi=10.2307/2512479 |jstor=2512479}}</ref>

In the religious sphere, indigenous men were banned from Christian priesthood, following an early Franciscan attempt that included fray [[Bernardino de Sahagún]] to train an indigenous group.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} Mendicants of the [[Franciscan]], [[Dominican Order|Dominican]], and Augustinian orders initially evangelized indigenous in their own communities in what is often called the "spiritual conquest".<ref>Robert Ricard, ''The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico'', translated by Lesley Byrd Simpson. Berkeley: University of California Press 1966.</ref> On the northern frontiers, the Spanish created missions and settled Indigenous populations in these complexes, which prompted raids from those who resisted settlement (given the name [[Indios Bárbaros]]). The [[Jesuits]] were prominent in this enterprise until their expulsion from Spanish America in 1767.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Albert |first=Salvador Bernabéu |date=2009 |title=El vacío habitado. Jesuitas reales y simulados en México durante los años de la supresión (1767-1816) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25511831 |journal=Historia Mexicana |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=1261–1303 |jstor=25511831 |issn=0185-0172}}</ref> Catholicism, often with local characteristics, was the only permissible religion in the colonial era.

==== Indigenous land ====
[[File:40Casas3.jpg|thumb|[[Cuarenta Casas]], dwellings of the [[Mogollon culture]].|alt=]]
[[File:Chamula - Friedhof 6 Grabpflege.jpg|thumb|Cemetery of [[San Juan Chamula]].|alt=]]
During the early colonial era in central Mexico, Spaniards were more interested in access to indigenous labor than land ownership. The institution of the ''[[encomienda]]'', a crown grant of the labor of indigenous communities to conquerors was a key element of the imposition of Spanish rule. The Spanish crown initially maintained the indigenous sociopolitical system of local rulers and land tenure, with the [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire]] eliminating the superstructure of rule, and replacing it with Spanish.{{sfn|Gibson|1964}}{{pn|date=January 2024}}{{sfn|Lockhart|1992}}{{pn|date=January 2024}}

The crown had several concerns about the encomienda. First was that the holders of encomiendas, called ''encomenderos,'' were becoming too powerful, essentially a seigneurial group that might challenge crown power (as shown in the conspiracy by conqueror [[Hernán Cortés]]'s legitimate son and heir). The second was that the encomenderos were monopolizing indigenous labor, excluding newly arriving Spaniards. And third, the crown was concerned about the damage to the indigenous vassals and their communities by the institution. Through the [[New Laws|New Laws of 1542]], the crown sought to phase out the ''encomienda'' and replace it with another crown mechanism of forced indigenous labor, the ''[[repartimiento]]''. Indigenous labor was no longer monopolized by a small group of conquerors and their descendants but apportioned to a larger group of Spaniards. Through the ''repartimiento,'' indigenous peoples were obligated to perform low-paid labor for a certain number of weeks or months on Spanish enterprises, notably silver mining.<ref name="Cuello">{{cite journal|last1=Cuello|first1=J|title=The Persistence of Indian Slavery and Encomienda in the Northeast of Colonial Mexico, 1577–1723|journal=Journal of Social History|date=1988|volume=21|issue=4|pages=683–700|doi=10.1353/jsh/21.4.683}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haskett |first=Robert S. |date=1991-08-01 |title="Our Suffering with the Taxco Tribute": Involuntary Mine Labor and Indigenous Society in Central New Spain |journal=Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=447–475 |doi=10.1215/00182168-71.3.447 |issn=0018-2168|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The land of indigenous peoples is used for material reasons as well as spiritual reasons. Religious, cultural, social, spiritual, and other events relating to their identity are also tied to the land.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Gaona Pando|first1=Georgina|title=EL DERECHO A LA TIERRA Y PROTECCIÓN DEL MEDIO AMBIENTE POR LOS PUEBLOS INDÍGENAS|journal=Nueva Antropología: Revista de Ciencias Sociales|date=June 2013|volume=26|issue=78|pages=141–161|language=es}}</ref> Indigenous people use collective property so that the aforementioned services that the land provides are available to the entire community and future generations.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> This was a stark contrast to the viewpoints of colonists that saw the land purely in an economic way where land could be transferred between individuals.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Once the land of the indigenous people and therefore their livelihood was taken from them, they became dependent on those that had land and power.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Additionally, the spiritual services that the land provided were no longer available and caused a deterioration of indigenous groups and cultures.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

[[File:Ignacio María Barreda - Las castas mexicanas.jpg|thumb|upright|A casta painting of 18th c. [[New Spain|colonial Mexico]] by Ignacio Maria Barreda, 1777.]]

==== Colonial-era racial categories ====
{{Main|Casta}}
The Spanish legal system divided racial groups into two basic categories, the ''República de Españoles'', consisting of all non-indigenous, but initially Spaniards and black Africans, and the ''República de Indios''.

The degree to which racial category labels had legal and social consequences has been subject to academic debate since the idea of a "caste system" was developed by [[Ángel Rosenblat]] and [[Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán]] in the 1940s. Both historians popularized the notion that racial status was a key organizing principle of Spanish colonial rule. However, recent academic studies have challenged this notion, considering it a flawed and ideologically based reinterpretation of the colonial period.<ref>Ares, Berta, "Usos y abusos del concepto de casta en el Perú colonial", ponencia presentada en el Congreso Internacional INTERINDI 2015. Categorías e indigenismo en América Latina, EEHA-CSIC, Sevilla, 10 de noviembre de 2015. Citado con la autorización de la autora.</ref><ref>Gonzalbo Aizpuru, Pilar, "La trampa de las castas" in Alberro, Solange and Gonzalbo Aizpuru, Pilar, ''La sociedad novohispana. Estereotipos y realidades, México'', El Colegio de México, 2013, p. 15–193.</ref>

When Mexico gained independence in 1821, the casta designations were eliminated as a legal structure, but racial divides remained. [[White Mexicans]] argued about what the solution was to the "Indian Problem", that is indigenous who continued to live in communities and were not integrated politically or socially as citizens of the new republic.<ref>[[Charles A. Hale|Hale, Charles A.]] ''Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora, 1821–1853''. New Haven: Yale University Press 1968.</ref> The [[1824 Constitution of Mexico|Mexican Constitution of 1824]] has several articles pertaining to indigenous peoples.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yujnovsky |first=Inés |date=2005 |title="Libertad en la Ley". El concepto de república en la Constitución Federal de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos de 1824 |journal=Jahrbuch für Geschichte Lateinamerikas |volume=42 |issue=1 |doi=10.7767/jbla.2005.42.1.243 |s2cid=183532963 |issn=2194-3680|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Independence to the Mexican Revolution===
[[File:Mexico 1832, Region Comanche.PNG|thumb|Comanchería in the 19th century.|alt=]]

The [[Mexican War of Independence]] was a decade-long struggle ending in 1821, in which indigenous peoples participated for their own motivations.<ref>Van Young, Eric. ''The Other Rebellion: Popular Violence, Ideology, and the Mexican Struggle for Independence''. Stanford University Press 2002.</ref> The new country was named after its capital city, [[Mexico City]]. The [[Flag of Mexico|new flag]] had at its center a symbol of the Aztecs, an eagle perched on a nopal cactus. Mexico declared the [[Abolitionism|abolition of slavery]] in 1829 and the [[Equality before the law|equality of all citizens before the law]] in 1857. Indigenous communities continued to have rights as corporations to maintain land holdings until the liberal [[La Reforma|Reforma]]. Some indigenous individuals integrated into Mexican society, like [[Benito Juárez]] of [[Zapotec people|Zapotec]] ethnicity, the first indigenous president in the Americas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=2013 |title=Seminario sobre Participación y políticas públicas para pueblos indígenas |publisher=Cdi.gob.mx |access-date=2014-05-18 |archive-date=2011-08-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817000204/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Juárez supported the removal of provisions protecting indigenous communal land holdings through the [[Lerdo law]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hamnett |first=Brian |date=1996 |title=The Comonfort Presidency, 1855-1857 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3339405 |journal=Bulletin of Latin American Research |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=81–100 |doi=10.1111/j.1470-9856.1996.tb00023.x |jstor=3339405 |issn=0261-3050}}</ref>

In the North of Mexico, indigenous peoples, such as the [[Comanche]] and [[Apache]], who had acquired the horse, waged a [[Comanche–Mexico Wars|successful warfare]] against the Mexican state. The Comanche controlled considerable territory, called the [[Comancheria]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Hämäläinen |first= Pekka |title= The Comanche Empire |year= 2008 |publisher= Yale University Press |isbn= 978-0-300-12654-9}}</ref> The [[Yaqui]] also had a long tradition of resistance, with the late nineteenth-century leader [[Cajemé]] being prominent during the [[Yaqui Wars]]. The [[Mayo people|Mayo]] joined their Yaqui neighbors in rebellion after 1867. In Yucatán, [[Maya peoples|Mayas]] waged a protracted war against local Mexican control in the [[Caste War of Yucatán]], which was most intensely fought in 1847 and lasted until 1915.<ref>Terry Rugeley, ''Yucatan's Maya Peasantry and the Origins of the Caste War'' (San Antonio, 1996)</ref>

===20th century===
[[File:Civilización_Totonaca_Diego_Rivera.jpg|thumb|"The [[Totonac]] Civilization," a mural by [[Diego Rivera]] in the [[National Palace (Mexico)|National Palace]] celebrates Mexico's indigenous history.]]
The [[Mexican Revolution]], a violent social and cultural movement that defined 20th-century Mexico, produced a nationalist sentiment that the indigenous peoples were the foundation of Mexican society in a movement known as ''[[indigenismo]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knight |first=Alan |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AjK65boWTxwC&dq=mexican+revolution+and+indigenismo&pg=PA71 |title=The Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870-1940 |date=1990 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0-292-78888-6 |editor-last=Graham |editor-first=Richard |pages=71–113 |language=en |chapter=Racism, revolution, and indigenismo: Mexico, 1910–1940}}</ref> Several prominent artists promoted the "Indigenous Sentiment" (''sentimiento indigenista'') of the country, including [[Frida Kahlo]] and [[Diego Rivera]]. Throughout the twentieth century, the government established bilingual education in some indigenous communities and published free bilingual textbooks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=177 |title=Programa Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas 2001–2006 |publisher=Cdi.gob.mx |access-date=2014-05-18 |archive-date=2014-05-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519004740/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=177 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some states of the federation appropriated an indigenous inheritance in order to reinforce their identity.<ref>Hamnett, Brian (1999) ''A Concise History of Mexico'', Cambridge University Press, UK, p. 3, "... the Maya inheritance has been appropriated by the national states to reinforce their historical identity and legitimacy."</ref>
[[File:Mother_&_Child_Coba_QR_Mexico_2014.jpg|thumb|Maya mother and child in [[Quintana Roo]].]]
In spite of the official recognition of indigenous peoples, the economic underdevelopment of their communities, accentuated by the crises of the 1980s and 1990s, has not allowed for the development of most indigenous communities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/public/spanish/bureau/inst/papers/1997/dp92/index.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403132402/http://www.ilo.org/public/spanish/bureau/inst/papers/1997/dp92/index.htm|url-status=dead|title=Pobreza y patrones de exclusión social en México|archive-date=April 3, 2007}}</ref> Thousands of indigenous Mexicans have emigrated to urban centers in Mexico and the United States. In Los Angeles, for example, the Mexican government has established electronic access to some of the consular services provided in Spanish as well as [[Zapotec language|Zapotec]] and [[Mixe language|Mixe]].<ref>[http://www.politicadigital.com.mx/IMG/pdf/PD_11.pdf Oaxaca se moderniza] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070202004919/http://www.politicadigital.com.mx/IMG/pdf/PD_11.pdf |date=2007-02-02 }}, p. 56, "Se trata de una terminal de cómputo, parecida a un cajero automático, que en español, mixe y zapoteco ofrece el servicio de..."</ref> Some of the Maya peoples of [[Chiapas]] have revolted, demanding better social and economic opportunities, requests voiced by the [[EZLN]].<ref name="Despagne 2013 114–129">{{Cite journal |last=Despagne |first=Colette |date=2013 |title=Indigenous Education in Mexico: Indigenous Students' Voices |journal=Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=114–129 |doi=10.1080/15595692.2013.763789 |s2cid=144351307 |issn=1559-5692|url=https://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=colette_despagne }}</ref>

The [[Chiapas conflict]] of 1994 led to collaboration between the Mexican government and the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation]], a [[Libertarian socialism|libertarian socialist]] indigenous political group.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Hidalgo |first=Margarita |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/191818520 |title=Mexican indigenous languages at the dawn of the twenty-first century |date=2006 |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |isbn=3-11-018597-0 |location=Berlin |oclc=191818520}}</ref> This movement generated international media attention and united many indigenous groups.<ref name=Stavenhagen>{{cite journal|last1=Stavenhagen|first1=R|title=Politics, Identity, and Mexico's Indigenous Rights Movements|journal=Human Rights Quarterly|date=November 2011|volume=33|issue=4|pages=1169–1176|doi=10.1353/hrq.2011.0063|s2cid=142866950}}</ref> In 1996 the [[San Andrés Accords|San Andrés Larráinzar Accords]] were negotiated between the Zapatista Army of National Liberation and the Mexican government.<ref name=":4" /> The San Andrés accords were the first time that indigenous rights were acknowledged by the Mexican government.<ref name=":4" />

The government has made certain legislative changes to promote the development of rural and indigenous communities and the promotion of indigenous languages. The second article of the Constitution was modified to include the right of [[self-determination]] and requires state governments to promote and ensure the economic development of indigenous communities as well as the preservation of their languages and traditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Durand Alcántara |first1=Carlos |last2=Gómez González |first2=Gerardo |last3=Sámano Rentería |first3=Miguel Ángel |date=2001-08-15 |title=Los Acuerdos de San Andrés Larraínzar en el contexto de la Declaración de los Derechos de los Pueblos Americanos |url=http://ru.juridicas.unam.mx:80/xmlui/handle/123456789/14077 |journal=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México |via=RU Jurídicas}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gutiérrez Chong |first=Natividad |date=2003 |title=La autonomía y la resolución de conflictos étnicos: Una perspectiva de los Acuerdos de San Andrés Larráinzar |url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0185-06362003000200002&lng=es&nrm=iso&tlng=es |journal=Nueva antropología |language=es |volume=19 |issue=63 |pages=11–39 |issn=0185-0636}}</ref>

==Rights==
===Constitutional===
[[File:Cajemé.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Cajemé]], a prominent [[Yaqui]] military leader.|alt=]]
The Spanish crown had legal protections for indigenous individuals as well as their communities, including establishing a separate General Indian Court.<ref>Woodrow Borah, ''Justice by Insurance: The General Indian court of Colonial Mexico and the Legal Aides of the Half-Real''. Berkeley: University of California Press 1983.</ref> The mid-nineteenth-century liberal reform removed them as part of its establishment of [[equality before the law]].<ref>Hale, ''Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora''</ref> The creation of a national identity not linked to racial or ethnic identity was an aim of Mexican liberalism.

In the late twentieth century, there has been a push for indigenous rights and a recognition of indigenous cultural identity. According to the constitutional reform of 2001, the following rights of indigenous peoples are recognized:<ref name="cdi faq">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=272&Itemid=58|title=Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas – México|website=Cdi.gob.mx|access-date=9 April 2018|archive-date=25 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225095213/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=272&Itemid=58|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* acknowledgment as indigenous communities, right to self-ascription, and the application of their own regulatory systems
* preservation of their cultural identity, land, consultation, and participation
* access to the jurisdiction to the state and to development
* recognition of indigenous peoples and communities as a subject of public law
* self-determination and self-autonomy
* [[remunicipalization]] for the advancement of indigenous communities 
* administer own forms of communication and media

The second article of the [[Constitution of Mexico]] recognizes and enforces the right of indigenous peoples and communities to self-determination and autonomy to:

V. Preserve and improve their habitat as well as preserve the integrity of their lands in accordance with this constitution. VI. Be entitled to the estate and land property modalities established by this constitution and its derived legislation, to all private property rights and communal property rights as well as to use and enjoy in a preferential way all the natural resources located at the places which the communities live in, except those defined as strategic areas according to the constitution. The communities shall be authorized to associate with each other in order to achieve such goals.<ref name="juridicas.unam.mx">{{cite web|url=http://www.juridicas.unam.mx/infjur/leg/constmex/pdf/consting.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218091702/http://www.juridicas.unam.mx/infjur/leg/constmex/pdf/consting.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 February 2015|date=18 February 2015|access-date=9 April 2018|title=The Political Constitution of the Mexican United States}}</ref>

Through the [[Land reform in Mexico|land reforms]] of the early 20th century, some indigenous people had land rights under the ''[[ejido]]'' system.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Derek|title=The Certification and Privatization of Indigenous Lands in Mexico|journal=Journal of Latin American Geography|date=2009|volume=8|issue=2|pages=175–207|doi=10.1353/lag.0.0060|s2cid=145748964}}</ref> Under ejidos, indigenous communities have usufruct rights of the land. Indigenous communities do this when they do not have the legal evidence to claim the land. In 1992, free market reforms allowed ejidos to be partitioned and sold. For this to happen, the PROCEDE program was established. The PROCEDE program surveyed, mapped, and verified the ejido lands. According to several analysts, the privatization of ejidos has undermined the economic base of indigenous communities.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Derek A. |last2=Herlihy |first2=Peter H. |last3=Kelly |first3=John H. |last4=Viera |first4=Aida Ramos |date=2009 |title=The Certification and Privatization of Indigenous Lands in Mexico |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25765267 |journal=Journal of Latin American Geography |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=175–207 |jstor=25765267 |issn=1545-2476}}</ref>

=== Linguistic ===
[[File:Ignacio Manuel Altamirano Basilio.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ignacio Manuel Altamirano]] Mexican liberal writer, journalist, teacher and politician.|alt=]]
The history of [[linguistic rights]] in Mexico began when the Spanish first made contact with Indigenous Languages during the colonial period.<ref name="Hidalgo">{{cite book |last1=Hidalgo |first1=Margarita |title=Mexican indigenous languages at the dawn of the twenty-first century |date=2006 |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |isbn=3110185970 |editor1-last=Hidalgo |editor1-first=Margarita |location=Berlin}}</ref> Beginning in the early sixteenth century, [[Mestizo|''mestizaje'']], the mixing of races and cultures, led to the mixing of languages as well.<ref name=Hidalgo /> The [[Monarchy of Spain|Spanish Crown]] proclaimed Spanish to be the language of the empire; indigenous languages were used during the conversion of individuals to Catholicism.<ref name=Hidalgo /> Because of this, indigenous languages were more widespread than Spanish from 1523 to 1581.<ref name=Hidalgo /> During the late sixteenth century, the prevalence of the Spanish language increased.<ref name=Hidalgo />

Indigenous tongues are discriminated against and seen as not modern.<ref name="Canuto Castillo">{{cite journal |last1=Canuto Castillo |first1=Felipe |date=June 2013 |title=LAS LENGUAS INDÍGENAS EN EL MéXICO DE HOY: POLÍTICA Y REALIDAD LINGÜÍSTICAS |journal=Lenguas Modernas |language=es |volume=42 |pages=31–45}}</ref> By the seventeenth century, the elite minority were Spanish speakers.<ref name=Hidalgo /> After independence in 1821, there was a shift to Spanish to legitimize the [[Mexican Spanish]] created by Mexican ''[[Criollo people|criollos]]''.<ref name=Hidalgo /> The nineteenth century brought with it programs to provide [[bilingual education]] at [[Primary School|primary levels]] where they would eventually transition to Spanish-only education.<ref name=Hidalgo /> Linguistic uniformity was sought out to strengthen national identity. This further excluded indigenous languages from power structures.<ref name=Hidalgo />

The [[Chiapas conflict]] of 1994 led to collaboration between the Mexican government and the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation]], an indigenous political group.<ref name=Hidalgo /> In 1996 the [[San Andrés Accords|San Andrés Larráinzar Accords]] were negotiated between the Zapatista Army of National Liberation and the Mexican government.<ref name=Hidalgo /> The San Andrés accords were the first time that indigenous rights were acknowledged by the Mexican government.<ref name=Hidalgo /> The San Andrés Accords did not explicitly state language but language was involved in matters involving culture and education.<ref name=Hidalgo />

In 2001, the second article of the constitution of Mexico was changed to recognize and enforce the right of indigenous peoples and communities to self-determination and therefore their autonomy to preserve and enrich their language, knowledge, and every part of their culture and identity.<ref name="juridicas.unam.mx" />

In 2003, the [[Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas|General Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Peoples]] explicitly stated the protection of individual and collective linguistic rights of indigenous peoples.<ref name="Ley General 2003">{{cite web|url=http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text.jsp?file_id=220917|language=es|title= Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas}}</ref> The final section also sanctioned the creation of a [[Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas|National Institute for Indigenous Languages (INALI)]] whose purpose is to promote the growth of indigenous languages in Mexico.<ref name="Ley General 2003" />

There has been a lack of enforcement of the law. For example, the General Law on Linguistic Rights of Indigenous People guarantees the right to a trial in the language of indigenous peoples with someone who understands their culture.<ref name="Ley General 2003" /> According to the Mexican [[National Human Rights Commission (Mexico)|National Human Rights Commission]], Mexico has not abided by this law.<ref name="Canuto Castillo" /> Examples include [[Santiago Mexquititlán raid|Jacinta Francisca Marcial]], an indigenous woman imprisoned for her alleged involvement in a 2006 kidnapping.<ref name="Canuto Castillo" /> After three years and the assistance of [[Amnesty International]], she was released for lack of evidence.<ref name="Canuto Castillo" />

Additionally, the General Law on Linguistics also guarantees bilingual and intercultural education.<ref name="Ley General 2003" /> These efforts have been criticized on grounds that teachers do not know the indigenous language or do not prioritize its teaching.<ref name="Canuto Castillo" /> In fact, some studies argue that formal education has decreased the prevalence of indigenous languages.<ref name="Canuto Castillo" /> Some parents do not teach their children their indigenous language, and some children refuse to learn their indigenous language for fear of discrimination. Scholars argue that there needs to be a social change to elevate the status of indigenous languages in order for the law to be withheld so that indigenous languages are protected.<ref name="Canuto Castillo" />

===Women's===
{{Multiple image
| align             = 
| direction         = 
| total_width       = 300
| image1            = Angelica - a Seri woman.jpg
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = A [[Seri people|Seri]] woman.
| image2            = Huichol indian.jpg
| caption2          = A [[Huichol]] mother.
}}

Indigenous women are often taken advantage of because they are women, indigenous, and often poor.<ref name="Taylor">{{cite journal|last1=Taylor|first1=Cami|title=The Struggle for Women's Rights|journal=DePaul Journal for Social Science|volume=5|issue=2}}</ref> Indigenous traditions have been used as a pretext by the Mexican government to deny rights to indigenous women, such as the right to own land. Additionally, [[Violence against women in Mexico|violence against women]] has been regarded by the Mexican government as a cultural practice.<ref name="Taylor" />

The [[EZLN]] accepted a Revolutionary Law for Women on March 8, 1993.<ref name=Taylor /> The law is not fully enforced but shows solidarity between the indigenous movement and women.<ref name=Taylor /> The Mexican government increased militarization of indigenous areas has made women more susceptible to harassment through military abuses.<ref name=Taylor /> The government has remained largely inactive against denunciations of abuse of indigenous women by elements of the armed forces.<ref name="Taylor" />

Indigenous women have formed many support organizations to improve their social position and gain financial independence.<ref name=Taylor /> Indigenous women use national and international legislation to support their claims that go against cultural norms such as domestic violence.<ref name="Gonzales Montes">{{cite journal|last1=Gonzales Montes|first1=Soledad|title=Violencia contra las mujeres, derechos y ciudadanía en contextos rurales e indígenas de México|journal=Convergencia: Revista de Ciencias Sociales|date=May 2009|volume=17|issue=50|pages=165–185|language=es}}</ref> [[Reproductive justice]] is an important issue to indigenous communities because there is a lack of development in these areas and is less access to maternal care. [[Conditional cash transfer]] programs such as [[Oportunidades]] have been used to encourage indigenous women to seek formal health care.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sosa-Rubi|first1=Sandra|title=Learning effect of a conditional cash transfer programme on poor rural women's selection of delivery care in Mexico|journal= Health Policy and Planning|date=Nov 2011|volume=26|issue=6|pages=496–507|doi=10.1093/heapol/czq085|pmid=21278371|pmc=9109227 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Development and socio-economy==
{{Further|List of Mexican states by Human Development Index|List of Mexican states by GDP}}

Generally, indigenous Mexicans are poorer than non-indigenous Mexicans, though social development varies between states, different indigenous ethnicities, and between rural and urban areas. In all states, indigenous people have higher [[infant mortality]], and in some states, almost double that of the non-indigenous populations.<ref name="inegi.org.mx">{{cite web|url=http://www.inegi.org.mx/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/censos/poblacion/poblacion_indigena/Pob_ind_Mex.pdf |title=La Población Indígena en México |access-date=July 17, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131009152736/http://www.inegi.org.mx/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/censos/poblacion/poblacion_indigena/Pob_ind_Mex.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2013 }}</ref>

[[File:Dr_Luna_Kan_(2010).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Francisco Luna Kan]] was governor of the state of [[Yucatán]] from 1976 to 1982.]]

Some indigenous groups, particularly the Yucatec Maya in the [[Yucatán Peninsula]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/cedulas/2010/YUCA/yuca2010.pdf|title=Indicadores sociodemográficos de la población total y la población indígena, 2010 : Yucatan|website=Cdi.gob.mx|access-date=9 April 2018|archive-date=10 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180410134637/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/cedulas/2010/YUCA/yuca2010.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/cedulas/2010/QUIN/quin2010.pdf|title=Indicadores sociodemográficos de la población total y la población indígena, 2010 : Quintana Roo|website=Cdi.gob.mx|access-date=9 April 2018|archive-date=10 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180410072157/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/cedulas/2010/QUIN/quin2010.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> and some of the Nahua and Otomi peoples in central states have maintained higher levels of development while indigenous peoples in states such as the [[Guerrero]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/cedulas/2010/GUER/guer2010.pdf|title=Indicadores sociodemográficos de la población total y la población indígena, 2010 : Guerrero|website=Cdi.gob.mx|access-date=9 April 2018|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200059/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/cedulas/2010/GUER/guer2010.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> or [[Michoacán]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/cedulas/2010/MICH/mich2010.pdf|title=Indicadores sociodemográficos de la población total y la población indígena, 2010 : Michoacán|website=Cdi.gob.mx|access-date=9 April 2018|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200250/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/cedulas/2010/MICH/mich2010.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> are ranked drastically lower than the average Mexican citizen in these fields. Despite certain indigenous groups such as the Maya or Nahua retaining high levels of development, the general indigenous population lives at a lower level of development than the general population.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Literacy rates are much lower for the indigenous, particularly in the southwestern states of Guerrero and Oaxaca due lack of access to education and a lack of educational literature available in indigenous languages. Literacy rates are also much lower, with 27% of indigenous children between 6 and 14 being illiterate compared to a national average of 12% in 2000.<ref name="inegi.org.mx"/> The Mexican government is required to provide education in indigenous languages but often fails to provide schooling in languages other than Spanish. As a result, many indigenous groups have resorted to creating their own small community educational institutions.<ref name="Despagne 2013 114–129"/>

The indigenous population participates in the workforce longer than the national average, starting earlier and continuing longer. A major reason for this is that a significant number of the indigenous practice [[subsistence agriculture]] and receive no regular salaries. Indigenous people also have lower access to health care.<ref name="inegi.org.mx"/>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Mexico}}

===Languages===
{{Main|Languages of Mexico}}
[[File:Bienvenidos a Ixmiquilpan.jpg|thumb|Welcome sign in [[Ixmiquilpan]], Hidalgo, with an Otomi language message reading ''Hogä ehe Nts'<u>u</u>tk'ani'' ("Welcome to Ixmiquilpan").|alt=]]
The Law of Linguistic Rights of the Indigenous Languages recognizes 62 [[languages of Mexico|indigenous languages]] as "national languages" which have the same validity as Spanish in all territories where they are spoken.<ref name="diputados.gob.mx"/> According to the [[National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Data Processing]] (INEGI), approximately 6.7% of the population speaks an indigenous language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cuentame.inegi.org.mx/poblacion/lindigena.aspx?tema=P|title=Población. Hablantes de lengua indígena|website=Cuentame.inegi.org.mx|access-date=19 April 2016}}</ref> That is, less than half of those identified as indigenous.<ref name="somosprimos.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.somosprimos.com/schmal/schmal.htm|title=John P. Schmal|website=Somosprimos.com|access-date=19 April 2016}}</ref> 6,695,228 people 5 years or older were tallied as indigenous-language speakers in the 2010 census, an increase of about 650,000 from the 2000 census. In 2000, 6,044,547 people 5 years or older spoke an indigenous language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inee.edu.mx/bie/mapa_indica/2005/PanoramaEducativoDeMexico/CS/CS04/2005_CS04__.pdf|title=PORCENTAJE DE POBLACION INDÍGENA, PORCENTAJE DE POBLACION HABLANTE DE LENGUA INDÍGENA Y PORCENTAJE DE MONOLINGÜES|website=Inee.edu.mx|access-date=9 April 2018|archive-date=17 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517052928/http://www.inee.edu.mx/bie/mapa_indica/2005/PanoramaEducativoDeMexico/CS/CS04/2005_CS04__.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In previous censuses, information on the indigenous speaking population five years of age and older was obtained from the Mexican people. However, in the 2010 census, this approach was changed and the Government also began to collect data on people 3 years and older. With this new approach, it was determined that there were 6,913,362 people 3 years of age or more who spoke an indigenous language (218,000 children 3 and 4 four years of age fell into this category), accounting for 6.6% of the total population. The population of children aged 0 to 2 years in homes where the head of household or a spouse spoke an indigenous language was 678 954. The indigenous language speaking population has been increasing in absolute numbers for decades, but have nonetheless been falling in proportion to the national population.<ref name="somosprimos.com"/>

The recognition of indigenous languages and the protection of indigenous cultures is granted not only to the ethnic groups indigenous to modern-day Mexican territory, but also to other North American indigenous groups that migrated to Mexico from the United States<ref name="Kikapú"/> in the nineteenth century and those who immigrated from [[Guatemala]] in the 1980s.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web|url=http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei2015/doc/panorama_sociodemografico_2015.pdf |title=Panorama sociodemográfico de México 2015 |access-date=2015-12-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304103300/http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei2015/doc/panorama_sociodemografico_2015.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref><ref name="inegi.org.mx1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei2015/doc/eic_2015_presentacion.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210230740/http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei2015/doc/eic_2015_presentacion.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Página no encontrada|archive-date=December 10, 2015|website=www.inegi.org.mx}}</ref><ref name="cdi.gob.mx"/>

==== States ====
{{Further|List of Mexican states by Indigenous-speaking population}}

The five states with the largest indigenous-language-speaking populations are:
* [[Oaxaca]], with 1,165,186 indigenous language speakers, accounting for 34.2% of the state's population.
* [[Chiapas]], with 1,141,499 indigenous language speakers, accounting for 27.2% of the state's population.
* [[Veracruz]], with 644,559 indigenous language speakers, accounting for 9.4% the state's population. 
* [[Puebla]], with 601,680 indigenous language speakers, accounting for 11.7% of the state's population. 
* [[Yucatán (state)|Yucatán]], with 537,516 indigenous language speakers, accounting for 30.3% of the state's population.

These five states accounted for 61.1% of all indigenous language speakers in Mexico. Most indigenous Mexicans do not speak their own languages and speak only Spanish. This is reflected in these five states' populations. Although Oaxaca, Chiapas, Veracruz, Puebla, and Yucatán have 34.2%, 27.2%, 9.4%, 11.7%, and 30.3% of their populations speaking an indigenous language, these states' self-identified indigenous populations are 65.73%, 36.15%, 29.25%, 35.28%, 65.4% respectively.<ref name="somosprimos.com"/>

===Population statistics===
[[File:MuestraIndumentaria_2015_20.JPG|thumb|upright|Representatives of the coastal [[Nahua]] people of Michoacán at the 2015 Muestra de Indumentaria Tradicional de Ceremonias y Danzas de Michoacán, part of the Tianguis de Domingo de Ramos in Uruapan, Michoacán, Mexico.]]In the 2020 census there were 23,232,391 people who were identified as indigenous based on self-identification (19.41%).<ref name="ReferenceD"/> This is a significant increase from the 2010 census, in which indigenous Mexicans accounted for 14.9% of the population, and numbered 15,700,000,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.conapo.gob.mx/work/models/CONAPO/indigenas_2010/Proyindigenas.pdf |title=Preliminares.p65 |access-date=2014-05-18}}</ref> but smaller than the 2015 census estimate of 25,694,928 (21.5%).<ref name="ReferenceC"/><ref name="inegi.org.mx1"/> Most indigenous communities have a degree of financial, political autonomy under the legislation of "[[usos y costumbres]]", which allows them to regulate internal issues under [[customary law]].

The indigenous population of Mexico has in recent decades increased both in absolute numbers as-well as a percentage of the population. This is largely due to increased self-identification as indigenous, as well as indigenous women having higher birth rates than the national average.<ref name="inegi.org.mx1"/><ref name="inegi1"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://mexico.cnn.com/nacional/2011/03/30/inegi-cada-vez-mas-mexicanos-hablan-una-lengua-indigena |title=INEGI: Cada vez más mexicanos hablan una lengua indígena - Nacional - CNNMéxico.com |publisher=Mexico.cnn.com |date=2011-03-30 |access-date=2011-12-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206133901/http://mexico.cnn.com/nacional/2011/03/30/inegi-cada-vez-mas-mexicanos-hablan-una-lengua-indigena |archive-date=2011-12-06 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index2.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=62&Itemid=24 |title=National Commission for the Development of the Indigenous Peoples |access-date=2014-05-18 |archive-date=2013-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023172638/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index2.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=62&Itemid=24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Indigenous peoples are also more likely to live in rural areas, but many reside in urban or suburban areas, particularly in the central states of [[Mexico State|Mexico]], [[Puebla, Puebla|Puebla]], [[Tlaxcala]], [[Mexico City]] and the [[Yucatán Peninsula]].

According to the CDI, the [[political divisions of Mexico|states]] with the greatest percentage of indigenous population are:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=91 |title=Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas. México |publisher=Cdi.gob.mx |access-date=2011-12-10 |archive-date=2004-11-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041115115005/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=91 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Yucatán (state)|Yucatán]], with 65.40%, [[Quintana Roo]] with 44.44% and [[Campeche]] with 44.54% of the population being indigenous, most of them [[Maya people|Maya]]; [[Oaxaca]] with 65.73% of the population, the most numerous groups being the [[Mixtec]] and [[Zapotec peoples]]; [[Chiapas]] has 36.15%, the majority being [[Tzeltal people|Tzeltal]] and [[Tzotzil people|Tzotzil]] Maya; [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]] with 36.21%, the majority being [[Otomi]]; [[Puebla]] with 35.28%, and [[Guerrero]] with 33.92%, mostly [[Nahua people]] and the states of [[San Luis Potosí]] and [[Veracruz]] both home to a population of 19% indigenous people, mostly from the [[Totonac]], Nahua and [[Huastec people|Teenek (Huastec)]] groups.<ref name="ReferenceC"/><ref name="inegi.org.mx1"/>

=== States ===
[[File:Mexico_self-identified_indigenous_population_map.svg|alt=|thumb|upright=1.75|Map of Mexican states by percentage indigenous language speaking (2015).]]
The majority of the indigenous population is concentrated in the central and southern states. According to the CDI, the [[political divisions of Mexico|states]] with the greatest percentage of indigenous population as of 2020 according to INEGI are:<ref name="somosprimos.com"/><ref name="ReferenceC"/><ref name="inegi.org.mx1"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=91 |title=Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas. México |publisher=Cdi.gob.mx |access-date=2013-04-22 |archive-date=2004-11-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041115115005/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=91 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ETNICIDAD |url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/doc/Censo2020_Principales_resultados_EUM.pdf |page=46}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:50%;"
! '''Rank'''
! '''State'''
! '''Percent Indigenous (2020)'''!<ref name="ReferenceD"/>
! '''Percent Indigenous-Language Speaking'''<ref name="auto2"/>
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''1'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Oaxaca|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 69.18%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_d_oax_05_etnicidad.xlsx|title=Etnicidad 2020|accessdate=3 March 2024}}</ref>
|align="center"| 31.2%
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''2'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Yucatán|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 65.18%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_yuc_05_etnicidad.xlsx|title=Etnicidad 2020|accessdate=3 March 2024}}</ref>
|align="center"| 23.7%
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''3'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Campeche|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 47.26%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_cam_05_etnicidad.xlsx|title=Etnicidad 2020|accessdate=3 March 2024}}</ref>
|align="center"| 10.4%
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''4'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Chiapas|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 36.79%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_chs_05_etnicidad.xlsx|title=Etnicidad 2020|accessdate=3 March 2024}}</ref>
|align="center"| 28.2%
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''5'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Hidalgo|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 36.65%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_hgo_05_etnicidad.xlsx|title=Etnicidad 2020|accessdate=3 March 2024}}</ref>
|align="center"| 12.3%
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''6'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Quintana Roo|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 33.23%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_qroo_05_etnicidad.xlsx|title=Etnicidad 2020|accessdate=3 March 2024}}</ref>
|align="center"| 11.7% 
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''7'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Puebla|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 33.22%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_pue_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 9.9% 
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''8'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Guerrero|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 33.14%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_gro_05_etnicidad.xlsx|title=Etnicidad 2020|accessdate=3 March 2024}}</ref>
|align="center"| 15.5%
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''9'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Veracruz|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 26.90%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_ver_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 8.6%
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''10'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Morelos|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 24.55%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_mor_05_etnicidad.xlsx|title=Etnicidad 2020|accessdate=3 March 2024}}</ref>
|align="center"| 2.0%
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''11'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Tabasco|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 21.36%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_tab_05_etnicidad.xlsx|title=Etnicidad 2020|accessdate=3 March 2024}}</ref>
|align="center"| 4.0%
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''12'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Michoacán|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 20.75%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_mic_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 3.4%
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''13'''
|align="left"|{{flag|San Luis Potosí|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 20.33%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_slp_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 8.6%
|-bgcolor="#lightgrey"
|align="center"|'''-'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Mexico|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 19.41%<ref name="ReferenceD"/>
|align="center"| 6.2%<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/temas/lengua/ | title=Lengua indígena | date=January 2010 }}</ref>
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''14'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Tlaxcala|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 16.46%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_tla_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 2.2%
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''15'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Nayarit|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 15.94%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_nay_05_etnicidad.xlsx|title=Etnicidad 2020|accessdate=3 March 2024}}</ref>
|align="center"| 5.9%
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''16'''
|align="left"|{{flag|México (state)|name=México|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 15.75%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_mex_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 2.6%
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''17'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Sonora|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 13.31%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_son_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 2.2%
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''18'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Colima|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 13.17%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_col_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 0.8%
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''19'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Querétaro|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 13.15%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_qro_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 1.4%
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''20'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Baja California Sur|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 11.87%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_bcs_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 1.8%
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''21'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Chihuahua|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 10.48%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_chh_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 3.1%
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''22'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Sinaloa|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 9.35%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_sin_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 1.4%
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''23'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Mexican Federal District|name=Ciudad de México|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 9.28%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_cdmx_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 1.5%
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''24'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Durango|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 8.87%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_dgo_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 2.7%
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''25'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Baja California|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 7.97%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_bc_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 1.4%
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''26'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Jalisco|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 7.04%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_jal_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 1.2%
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''27'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Tamaulipas|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 6.67%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_tam_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 0.7% 
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''28'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Nuevo León|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 6.40%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_nl_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 1.4%
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''29'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Guanajuato|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 6.39%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_gto_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 0.3%
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''30'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Aguascalientes|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 6.17%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_ags_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 0.2%
|-bgcolor="#d0e7ff"
|align="center"|'''31'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Zacatecas|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 4.88%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_zac_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 0.7% 
|-bgcolor="#f5faff"
|align="center"|'''32'''
|align="left"|{{flag|Coahuila|size=50x36px}}
|align="center"| 2.13%<ref>[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/2020/tabulados/ampliado/cpv2020_a_coa_05_etnicidad.xlsx Etnicidad 2020]</ref>
|align="center"| 0.2%
|}
{{clear}}

===Population genetics===
{{Further| Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas}}
[[File:PCA_plot_of_Totonacs_and_Bolivians.png|thumb|Principal components plot of individual pairwise genetic distance estimates. Panel 1 – most New World Native American and Hispanic individuals are clustered and have smaller estimated distances to the HapMap CHB/JPT than to the CEU or YRI (~815 K SNPs).]]
The indigenous Mexicans (and other 'Amerindian' or 'Native American' peoples) originated from a lineage which diverged from [[East Asian people|Ancient East Asians]] around 36,000 years ago, and subsequently merged with a Paleolithic Siberian population known as [[Ancient North Eurasians]]. This newly formed population gave rise to [[Paleosiberian peoples]] which stayed in Siberia and Ancestral Amerindians which populated the Americas.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sapiens |date=2022-02-08 |title=A Genetic Chronicle of the First Peoples in the Americas |url=https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/ancient-dna-native-americans/ |access-date=2023-04-03 |website=SAPIENS |language=en-US |quote=AROUND 36,000 years ago, a small group of people living in East Asia began to break off from the larger ancestral populations in the region. By about 25,000 years ago, the smaller group in East Asia itself split into two. One gave rise to a group referred to by geneticists as the ancient Paleo-Siberians, who stayed in Northeast Asia. The other became ancestral to Indigenous peoples in the Americas.}}</ref>

In 2011 a large scale mitochondrial sequencing in [[Mexican Americans]] revealed 85 to 90% of maternal mtDNA lineages are of Native American origin, with the remainder having European (5–7%) or African ancestry (3–5%).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Merriwether |first1=D. A. |last2=Huston |first2=S. |last3=Iyengar |first3=S. |last4=Hamman |first4=R. |last5=Norris |first5=J. M. |last6=Shetterly |first6=S. M. |last7=Kamboh |first7=M. I. |last8=Ferrell |first8=R. E. |date=February 1997 |title=Mitochondrial versus nuclear admixture estimates demonstrate a past history of directional mating |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9066897/ |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=153–159 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199702)102:2<153::AID-AJPA1>3.0.CO;2-# |issn=0002-9483 |pmid=9066897|hdl=2027.42/37680 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Thus the observed frequency of Native American mtDNA in Mexican/Mexican Americans is higher than was expected on the basis of autosomal estimates of Native American admixture for these populations i.e. ~ 30–46%.<ref name="http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1471-2148-11-293.pdf">
"For mtDNA variation, some studies have measured Native American, European and African contributions to Mexican and Mexican American populations, revealing 85 to 90% of mtDNA lineages are of Native American origin, with the remainder having European (5–7%) or African ancestry (3–5%). Thus the observed frequency of Native American mtDNA in Mexican/Mexican Americans is higher than was expected on the basis of autosomal estimates of Native American admixture for these populations i.e. ~ 30–46%. The difference is indicative of directional mating involving preferentially immigrant men and Native American women. This type of genetic asymmetry has been observed in other populations, including Brazilian individuals of African ancestry, as the analysis of sex specific and autosomal markers has revealed evidence for substantial European admixture that was mediated mostly through men. In our 384 completely sequenced Mexican American mitochondrial genomes, 12 (3.1%) are of African ancestry belonging to haplogroups L0a1a'3', L2a1, L3b, L3d and U6a7; 52 (13.6%) belong to European haplogroups HV, JT, U1, U4, U5; and K and the majority (320, 83.3%) are of Native American ancestry." [http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1471-2148-11-293.pdf]</ref>

The indigenous groups within what is now Mexico are genetically distinct from each other.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last1=Wade |first1=Lizzie|date=2014-06-12|title=People from Mexico show stunning amount of genetic diversity|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/people-mexico-show-stunning-amount-genetic-diversity-rev2|access-date=2020-12-21|website=Science {{!}} AAAS|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Moreno-Estrada|first1=A.|last2=Gignoux|first2=C. R.|last3=Fernandez-Lopez|first3=J. C.|last4=Zakharia|first4=F.|last5=Sikora|first5=M.|last6=Contreras|first6=A. V.|last7=Acuna-Alonzo|first7=V.|last8=Sandoval|first8=K.|last9=Eng|first9=C.|last10=Romero-Hidalgo|first10=S.|last11=Ortiz-Tello|first11=P.|date=2014-06-13|title=The genetics of Mexico recapitulates Native American substructure and affects biomedical traits|journal=Science|language=en|volume=344|issue=6189|pages=1280–1285|doi=10.1126/science.1251688|issn=0036-8075|pmc=4156478|pmid=24926019|bibcode=2014Sci...344.1280M}}</ref> The genetic differences between geographically separated indigenous groups (e.g., between indigenous people living in the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] compared to indigenous people living in western Mexico) can be as large as the genetic differences seen between a European and an East Asian person.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

===Populations of more than 100,000===
{| style="float:left; width: 35em; font-size: 85%; text-align: left;" class="infobox"
|-
| colspan="3"  style="text-align:center; background:#black; color:white; background-color:black;"| '''Indigenous Peoples of Mexico'''
|-
!  style="background:#efefef; text-align:center;"| Group
!  style="background:#efefef; text-align:center;"| Population
!  style="background:#efefef; text-align:center;"| Speakers¹
|-
|[[Nahuas]] 
|align=right|2,445,969
|align=right|1,659,029
|-
|[[Maya peoples|(Yucatec) Maya]] (Maya'wiinik)
|align=right|1,475,575
|align=right|892,723
|-
|[[Zapotec people|Zapotec]] (Binizaa)
|align=right|777,253
|align=right|505,992
|-
|[[Mixtec]] (Ñuù savi)
|align=right|726,601
|align=right|510,801
|-
|[[Otomi people|Otomi]] (Hñähñü)
|align=right|646,875
|align=right|327,319
|-
|[[Totonac]] (Tachiwin)
|align=right|411,266
|align=right|271,847
|-
|[[Tzotzil people|Tzotzil]] (Sotz'leb)
|align=right|406,962
|align=right|356,349
|-
|[[Tzeltal people|Tzeltal]] (K'op o winik atel)
|align=right|384,074
|align=right|336,448
|-
|[[Mazahua people|Mazahua]] (Hñatho)
|align=right|326,660
|align=right|151,897
|-
|[[Mazatec people|Mazatec]] (Ha shuta enima)
|align=right|305,836
|align=right|246,198
|-
|[[Huastec people|Huastec]] (Téenek)
|align=right|296,447
|align=right|173,233
|-
|[[Chʼol people|Ch'ol]] (Winik)
|align=right|220,978
|align=right|189,599
|-
|[[Chinantec]] (Tsa jujmí)
|align=right|201,201
|align=right|152,711
|-
|[[Purépecha people|Purépecha]] (P'urhépecha)
|align=right|202,884
|align=right|136,388
|-
|[[Mixe people|Mixe]] (Ayüükjä'äy)
|align=right|168,935
|align=right|135,316
|-
|[[Tlapanec people|Tlapanec]] (Me'phaa)
|align=right|140,254
|align=right|119,497
|-
|[[Tarahumara]] (Rarámuri)
|align=right|121,835
|align=right|87,721
|-
| colspan="3" style="background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"|¹<small>Number of indigenous peoples that still speak their Indigenous language</small><br /><small>Source: CDI (2000)</small><ref name="http">{{cite web |url=http://cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=660 |title=Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas. México |publisher=Cdi.gob.mx |access-date=2013-04-22 |archive-date=2019-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915035252/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id_seccion=660 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|}
{{Multiple image
| align = 
| direction = vertical
| total_width = 350px
| image1 = Mexico StatesHDI 2015.png
| alt1 = 
| caption1 = Mexican States by Human Development Index, 2015.
| image2 = Map of the languages of Mexico.png
| caption2 = Indigenous groups and languages of Mexico, only including groups with more than 100,000 speakers of a native language.}}{{Clear}}

===Populations between 20,000 and 100,000===
{| style="float:left; width: 35em; font-size: 85%; text-align: left;" class="infobox"
|-
| colspan="3"  style="text-align:center; background:#black; color:white; background-color:black;"| '''Indigenous Peoples of Mexico'''
|-
!  style="background:#efefef; text-align:center;"| Group
!  style="background:#efefef; text-align:center;"| Population
!  style="background:#efefef; text-align:center;"| Speakers¹
|-
|[[mayo people|Mayo]] (Yoreme)
|align=right|91,261
|align=right|60,093
|-
|[[Zoque people|Zoque]] (O'de püt)
|align=right|86,589
|align=right|34,770
|-
|[[Chontal Maya people|Chontal Maya]] (Yokot)
|align=right|79,438
|align=right|43,850
|-
|[[Popoluca]] (Tuncápxe)
|align=right|62,306
|align=right|44,237
|-
|[[Chatinos|Chatino]] (Cha'cña)
|align=right|60,003
|align=right|47,762
|-
|[[Amuzgo people|Amuzgo]] (Tzañcue)
|align=right|57,666
|align=right|48,843
|-
|[[Tojolabal people|Tojolabal]] (Tojolwinik)
|align=right|54,505
|align=right|44,531
|-
|[[Huichol people|Huichol]] (Wixárika)
|align=right|43,929
|align=right|36,856
|-
|[[Tepehuan]] (O'dam, Audam, and Ódami)
|align=right|37,548
|align=right|30,339
|-
|[[Trique people|Triqui]] (Tinujéi)
|align=right|29,018
|align=right|24,491
|-
|[[Popoloca]]
|align=right|26,249
|align=right|18,926
|-
|[[Cora people|Cora]] (Nayeeri)
|align=right|24,390
|align=right|19,512
|-
|[[Mame people|Mame]] (Qyool)
|align=right|23,812
|align=right|8,739
|-
|[[Yaqui people|Yaqui]] (Yoeme)
|align=right|23,411
|align=right|15,053
|-
|[[Cuicatecs|Cuicatec]] (Nduudu yu)
|align=right|22,984
|align=right|15,078
|-
|[[Huave people|Huave]] (Ikoods)
|align=right|20,528
|align=right|16,135
|-
| colspan="3" style="background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"|¹<small>Number of indigenous peoples that still speak their Indigenous language</small><br /><small>Source: CDI (2000)</small><ref name="http"/>
|}
{{Multiple image
| align = 
| direction = vertical
| total_width = 350px
| image1 = Map of the languages of Mexico with 20,000 to 100,000 speakers.png
| caption1 = Indigenous groups and languages of Mexico. Displaying groups with more than 20,000 and less than 100,000 speakers of a native language.
| image2 = Map of the indigenous languages of Mexico with fewer than 20,000 speakers.png
| caption2 = Indigenous groups and languages of Mexico. Displaying groups with less than 20,000 speakers of a native language.}}{{Clear}}


===Populations of less than 20,000===
{|style="float:left; width: 35em; font-size: 85%; text-align: left;" class="infobox"
|-
| colspan="3"  style="text-align:center; background:#black; color:white; background-color:black;"| '''Indigenous Languages of Mexico'''
|-
!  style="background:#efefef; text-align:center;"| Group
!  style="background:#efefef; text-align:center;"| Population
!  style="background:#efefef; text-align:center;"| Speakers¹
|-
|[[Tepehua people|Tepehua]] (Hamasipini)
|align=right|16,051
|align=right|10,625
|-
|[[Q'anjob'al language|Kanjobal]] (K'anjobal)
|align=right|12,974
|align=right|10,833
|-
|[[Chontal of Oaxaca]] (Slijuala sihanuk)
|align=right|12,663
|align=right|5,534
|- bum
|[[Pame people|Pame]] (Xigüe)
|align=right|12,572
|align=right|9,768
|-
|[[Chichimeca Jonaz people|Chichimeca Jonaz]] (Uza)
|align=right|3,169
|align=right|1,987
|-
|[[Huarijio language|Huarijio]] (Makurawe)
|align=right|2,844
|align=right|1,905
|-
|[[Chuj people|Chuj]]
|align=right|2,719
|align=right|2,143
|-
|[[Chocho people|Chocho]] (Runixa ngiigua)
|align=right|2,592
|align=right|1,078
|-
|[[Tacuate people|Tacuate]]
|align=right|2,379
|align=right|2,067
|-
|[[Mexicanero]] (Mexikatlajtolli)
|align=right|2,296
|align=right|1,300
|-
|[[Matlatzinca people|Ocuiltec]] (Tlahuica)
|align=right|1,759
|align=right|522
|-
|[[Pima Bajo people|Pima Bajo]]
|align=right|1,540
|align=right|836
|-
|[[Jakaltek language|Jacaltec]] (Abxubal)
|align=right|1,478
|align=right|584
|-
|[[Q'eqchi' people|Kekchí]] (K'ekchí)
|align=right|987
|align=right|835
|-
|[[Lacandon people|Lacandon]] (Hach t'an)
|align=right|896
|align=right|731
|-
|[[Ixcatecos|Ixcatec]]
|align=right|816
|align=right|406
|-
|[[Seri people|Seri]] (Comcáac)
|align=right|716
|align=right|518
|-
|[[K'iche' people|K'iche']] (Quiché, Q'iché)
|align=right|524
|align=right|286
|-
|[[Motozintlecos|Motocintleco]] (Qatok)
|align=right|692
|align=right|186
|-
|[[Kaqchikel people|Kaqchikel]] (K'akchikel)
|align=right|675
|align=right|230
|-
|[[Paipai people|Paipai]] (Akwa'ala)
|align=right|418
|align=right|221
|-
|[[Tohono O'odham]] (Papago)
|align=right|363
|align=right|153
|-
|[[Cocopah]] (Es péi)
|align=right|344
|align=right|206
|-
|[[Kumiai]] (Ti'pai)
|align=right|328
|align=right|185
|-
|[[Kickapoo people|Kikapú]] (Kikapooa)
|align=right|251
|align=right|144
|-
|[[Cochimi]] (Laymón, mti'pá)
|align=right|226
|align=right|96
|-
|[[Ixil people|Ixil]]
|align=right|224
|align=right|108
|-
|[[Kiliwa people|Kiliwa]] (Ko'lew)
|align=right|107
|align=right|55
|-
|[[Awakatek people|Aguacatec]]
|align=right|59
|align=right|27
|-
|Other groups<sup>2</sup>
|align=right|728
|align=right|337
|-
| colspan="3" style="background:#e9e9e9; text-align:center;"|¹<small>Number of indigenous peoples that still speak their Indigenous language</small><br /><small>Source: CDI (2000)</small><ref name="http"/>
<small><sup>2</sup> Includes [[Opata people|Opata]], [[Solteco Zapotec|Soltec]] and [[Papabuco language|Papabuco]]</small>
|}

[[File:Zap1.jpg|thumb|[[Zapatista Army of National Liberation]] (EZLN), a [[revolutionary]] indigenous [[autonomist]] organization based in the southern [[Mexico|Mexican]] [[States of Mexico|state]] of [[Chiapas]].]]
[[File:Festival de danzas.jpg|thumb|Kickapoo dance in Comonfort, Guanajuato.]]
[[File:Traje tehuana.jpg|thumb|Women dancing in [[Tehuana]] costume, (costume of the Zapotec ethnic group that inhabit the Isthmus of Tehuantepec), in the Guelaguetza in Oaxaca.]]

{{Clear}}

== Education ==
[[File:Wikimanía 2015 (7).jpg|thumb|[[Science]] and Indigenous education.]]

Mexico is the nation of the Americas with the highest number of living languages in the early years of the 21st century, despite this cultural wealth, there is a technological disparity in education for indigenous peoples compared to other ethnic groups living in the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://bdigital.uncu.edu.ar/objetos_digitales/5976/catedravirtual-integracionlatinoamericana-desigualdad-educativa.pdf |title=La Desigualdad Educativa en los Pueblos Indígenas |website=Cátedra Virtual }}</ref>

== Culture ==

The anthropologist and chef [[Raquel Torres Cerdán]] has recorded and ensured the preservation of many of the indigenous cuisines of Veracruz.<ref name=":3">[https://issuu.com/tatik/docs/sabores_a_tradicion SABORES A TRADICIÓN.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207221349/https://issuu.com/tatik/docs/sabores_a_tradicion |date=2022-02-07 }} Experiencias de mujeres de la región cafetalera del Estado de Veracruz Radio Teocelo 2012</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Sabor|first=Historia y|title=Raquel Torres, sazón con sentimiento|url=https://www.historiaysabor.mx/2018/01/raquel-torres-sazon-con-sentimiento.html|access-date=2022-02-07|website=Historia y sabor}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|first=Celia|last=Gayosso|title=La gastronomía de Raquel Torres Cerdán: "cuando uno come, evoca"|url=https://www.diariodexalapa.com.mx/local/la-gastronomia-de-raquel-torres-cuando-uno-come-evoca-taller-de-cocina-tradicional-mexicana-5270278.html|access-date=2022-02-07|website=Diario de Xalapa|language=es}}</ref>

== Notable people ==
{{see also|List of Indigenous people of the Americas#Mexico}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Mexico}}
*[[New Spain|Colonial Mexico]]
*[[Indigenismo in Mexico]]
*[[Mesoamerica]]
*[[Mesoamerican chronology]]
*[[Mexican Indian Wars]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
{{Refbegin|indent=yes}}
<!--BEGIN biblio format. -->
* {{Cite book |author=CIA [US Central Intelligence Agency] |year=2008 |chapter=Mexico |chapter-url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/mx.html |title=The 2008 World Factbook |edition=online |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |issn=1553-8133 |oclc=34199805 |access-date=2009-04-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417062301/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/mx.html |archive-date=2009-04-17 |title-link=World Factbook }}
* {{Cite journal |author=Lizcano Fernández, Francisco |date=May–August 2005 |title=Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI |url=http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf |format=PDF online reproduction by UAEM |journal=Convergencia |location=Toluca, Mexico |publisher=[[Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México]] |volume=Año 12 |issue=38 |pages=185–232 |issn=1405-1435 |oclc=61659674 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920172933/http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf |archive-date=September 20, 2008 }}
* {{Cite book|author=Martínez Novo, Carmen |year=2006 |title=''Who defines indigenous? Identities, development, intellectuals and the State in Northern Mexico'' |location=New Brunswick |publisher=Rutgers University Press}}
* {{Cite book |author=Martínez-Torres, María Elena |author2=Rosaluz Pérez Espinosa |author3=Aldo González Rojas |year=2008 |chapter=Mexico |title=The Indigenous World 2008 |chapter-url=http://www.iwgia.org/sw29940.asp |chapter-format=PDF online edition |editor=Katherin Wessendorf (compilation and ed.) |others=Alejandro Parellada (regional ed.) |series=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs yearbooks |issn=1024-0217 |location=Copenhagen |publisher=[[International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs|IWGIA]], distributed by [[Transaction Publishers]] |pages=78–89 |isbn=978-87-91563-44-7 |oclc=30981676 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022134122/http://www.iwgia.org/sw29940.asp |archive-date=2008-10-22 }}
* {{Cite book |author=Navarrete Linares, Federico |year=2008 |title=Los pueblos indígenas de México |url=http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_details&gid=62&Itemid=24 |format=PDF online facsimile |series=Pueblos Indígenas del México Contemporáneo series |location=México, D.F. |publisher=[[Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas]] |isbn=978-970-753-157-4 |oclc=319215886 |language=es |access-date=2009-04-22 |archive-date=2015-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318013625/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_details&gid=62&Itemid=24 |url-status=dead }}
* {{Cite journal |author1=Satish Kumar |author2=Claire Bellis |author3=Mark Zlojutro |author4=Phillip E Melton |author5=John Blangero |author6=Joanne E Curran |year=2011 |title=Large scale mitochondrial sequencing in Mexican Americans suggests a reappraisal of Native American origins |journal=BMC Ecology and Evolution |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=293 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-11-293 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011BMCEE..11..293K |url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1471-2148-11-293.pdf }}
{{Refend}}<!-- END biblio format style -->

==Further reading==
===General===
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* {{cite book | first = Robert | last = Carmack | year = 1996 | title = The legacy of Mesoamerica: history and culture of a Native American civilization | publisher = Prentice Hall | isbn = 0-13-337445-9|display-authors=etal}}
* {{cite book|editor-first = David|editor-last=Carrasco|year=2001|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Culture|edition = 3 vols. | publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-510815-9}}
* {{cite book | editor-first = Robert | editor-last = Wauchope | year = 1964–76 | title = Handbook of Middle American Indians | url = https://archive.org/details/handbookofmiddle00wauc | url-access = registration | edition = 16 vols. | publisher = University of Texas Press | location = Austin | isbn = 0-292-78419-8}}
{{div col end|2}}

===Prehispanic era===
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*{{cite journal|first=Richard E.W.|last=Adams|year=2000|title=Introduction to a Survey of the Native Prehistoric Cultures of Mesoamerica|journal=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas|volume=2|pages=1–44|isbn=0-521-35165-0}}
* {{cite book | first = Michael D. | last = Coe | year = 1996 | title = Mexico: from the Olmecs to the Aztecs | publisher = Thames and Hudson | location = New York | isbn = 0-500-27722-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/mexicofromolmecs00coem }}
*{{cite journal|first=George L.|last=Cowgill|year=2000|title=The Central Mexican Highlands from the Rise of Teotihuacan to the Decline of Tula|journal=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas|volume=2|pages=250–317|isbn=0-521-35165-0}}
* Duverger, Christian (1999): ''Mesoamérica, arte y antropología.'' <small>CONACULTA</small>-Landucci Editores. Paris. 
* {{cite book | first = Tomás | last = Fernández |author2=Jorge Belarmino | year = 2003 | title = La escultura prehispánica de mesoamérica | publisher = Lunwerg Editores | location = Barcelona | isbn = 84-9785-012-2}}
* {{cite book | first = Beatrice | last = de la Fuente | year = 2001 | title = De Mesoamérica a la Nueva España | publisher = Consejo de Comunidades Asturianas | location = Oviedo, Spain | isbn = 84-505-9611-4}}
* {{cite book | first = Manuel | last = Gamio | year = 1922 | title = La Población del Valle de Teotihuacán: Representativa de las que Habitan las Regiones Rurales del Distrito Federal y de los Estados de Hidalgo, Puebla, México y Tlaxcala | edition = 2 vols. in 3 | publisher = Talleres Gráficos de la Secretaría de Educación Pública | location = Mexico City}}
*{{cite journal|first=David G.|last=Grove|year=2000|title=The Preclassic Societies of the Central Highlands of Mesoamerica|journal=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas|volume=2|pages=122–155|isbn=0-521-35165-0}}
*{{cite journal |first = David G. |last = Grove| year = 2001 |title = Mesoamerican Chronology: Formative (Preclassic) Period (2000 BCE-250 CE)| journal = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Culture |volume = 2 | pages = 236–243| isbn = 0-19-510815-9}}
* {{cite journal | first = Paul | last = Kirchhoff | year = 1943 | title = Mesoamérica. Sus Límites Geográficos, Composición Étnica y Caracteres Culturales | journal = Acta Americana | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 92–107}}
* {{cite book | first = Nicola | last = Kuehne Heyder |author2=Joaquín Muñoz Mendoza | year = 2001 | title = Mesoamérica: acercamiento a una historia | publisher = Diputación Provincial de Granada | location = Granda, Spain | isbn=84-7807-008-7}}
* {{cite book | first = Alfredo | last = López Austin |author2=Leonardo López Luján | year = 1996 | title = El pasado indígena | publisher = El Colegio de México | location = Mexico | isbn = 968-16-4890-0}}
*{{cite journal |first = Richard S. |last = MacNeish| year = 2001 |title = Mesoamerican Chronology: Early Development and the Archaic Period (before 2600 BCE)| journal = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Culture |volume = 2 | pages = 226–236| isbn = 0-19-510815-9}}
*{{cite journal|first=Joyce|last=Marcus|author2=Kent V. Flannery|year=2000|title=Cultural Evolution in Oaxaca: The Origins of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations|journal=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas|volume=2|pages=358–406|isbn=0-521-35165-0}}
*{{cite journal |first = Geoffrey G. |last = McCafferty| author2 = David Carrasco| year = 2001 |title = Mesoamerican Chronology: Classic Period (250-900)| journal = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Culture |volume = 2 | pages = 243–248| isbn = 0-19-510815-9}}
* Miller, Mary Ellen. (2001). ''El arte de mesoamérica''. "Colecciones El mundo del arte". Ediciones Destino. [[Barcelona]], España. {{ISBN|84-233-3095-8}}.
* {{cite book | first = Ángel | last = Palerm | year = 1972 | title = Agricultura y civilización en Mesoamérica | publisher = Secretaría de Educación Pública | location = Mexico | isbn = 968-13-0994-4}}
*{{cite journal |first = Michael E. |last = Smith| year = 2001 |title = Mesoamerican Chronology: Postclassic Period (900-1521)| journal = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Culture |volume = 2 | pages = 248–257| isbn = 0-19-510815-9}}
* {{cite book | first1 = Bernardino de | last1 = Sahagún | author-link = Bernardino de Sahagún |translator1 = Arthur J. O. Anderson |translator2= Charles E. Dibble | year = 1950–82 | title = Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain | edition = 13 vols. in 12 | publisher = School of American Research | location = Santa Fe | isbn = 0-87480-082-X}}
* {{cite book | first = Muriel Porter | last = Weaver | year = 1993 | title = The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica | edition = 3rd | publisher = Academic Press | location = San Diego | isbn = 0-01-263999-0}}
* {{cite book | first = Robert C. | last = West |author2=John P. Augelli | year = 1989 | title = Middle America: Its Lands and Peoples | edition = 3rd | publisher = Prentice Hall | location = Englewood Cliffs, N.J. | isbn = 0-13-582271-8}}
* {{cite journal|first=Robert N. |last = Zeitlin|author2 = Judith Zeitlin|year=2000|title=The Paleoindian and Archaic Cultures of Mesoamerica|journal = The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas| volume=2|pages=45–122|isbn=0-521-35165-0}}
{{div col end|2}}

===Postconquest era===
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*{{cite book|first= Ida|last=Altman|author-link=Ida Altman| year=2003|title=The Early History of Greater Mexico|publisher=Prentice Hall|isbn=0-13-091543-2|display-authors=etal}}
* {{cite journal|first=Sarah |last = Cline|year=2000|title=Native Peoples of Colonial Central Mexico|journal = The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas| volume=2|pages=187–222|isbn=0-521-65204-9}}
* {{cite book|first = Charles|last=Gibson|author-link=Charles Gibson (historian)|year=1964|title=The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule|url = https://archive.org/details/aztecsunderspani00gibs|url-access = registration|publisher=Stanford University Press}}
* {{cite journal|first=Grant D.|last = Jones|year=2000|title=The Lowland Maya from the Conquest to the Present|journal = The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas| volume=2|pages=346–391|isbn=0-521-65204-9}}
* {{cite book|first=James|last=Lockhart|author-link=James Lockhart (historian)|year=1992|title=The Nahuas After the Conquest|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=0-8047-1927-6}} 
* {{cite journal|first=W. George |last = Lovell|year=2000|title=The Highland Maya|journal = The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas| volume=2|pages=392–444|isbn=0-521-65204-9}}
* {{cite journal|first=Murdo J. |last = MacLeod|author-link=Murdo J. MacLeod|year=2000|title=Mesoamerica since the Spanish Invasion: An Overview|journal = The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas| volume=2|pages=1–43|isbn=0-521-65204-9}}
* {{cite journal|first=Frans S. |last = Schryer|year=2000|title=Native Peoples of Colonial Central Mexico since Independence|journal = The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas| volume=2|pages=223–273|isbn=0-521-65204-9}}
*{{cite journal|first=Robert J.|last=Sharer|year=2000|title=the Maya Highlands and the Adjacent Pacific Coast|journal=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas|volume=2|pages=449–499|isbn=0-521-35165-0}}
* {{cite journal |first = William B. |last = Taylor| author-link = William B. Taylor (historian)| year = 2001 |title = Mesoamerican Chronology: Colonial Period (1521-1821)| journal = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Culture |volume = 2 | pages = 257–264 | isbn = 0-19-510815-9}}
* {{cite journal |first = John |last = Tutino| year = 2001 |title = Mesoamerican Chronology: Postcolonial Period (1821-present)| journal = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Culture |volume = 2 | pages = 264–271 | isbn = 0-19-510815-9}}
{{div col end|2}}

===Postcolonial era===
<!-- {{div col|colwidth=30em}} -->
* {{cite journal|first=Eric |last = Van Young|year=2000|title=The Indigenous Peoples of Western Mexico from the Spanish Invasion to the Present|journal = The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas| volume=2|pages=136–186|isbn=0-521-65204-9}}
* Flores, René D.; Loría, María Vignau; Casas, Regina Martínez (2023). [[doi:10.1086/725337|"Transitory versus Durable Boundary Crossing: What Explains the Indigenous Population Boom in Mexico?]]". ''American Journal of Sociology''. '''129''' (1): 123–161.
<!-- {{div col end|2}} -->

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Note|refs=
<ref name=Note01>This is the most commonly cited number in terms of indigenous peoples by the government, however other numbers are occasionally cited as well.
</ref>
<ref name=Note02>Despite 19.4% of the Mexican population culturally identifying as indigenous, up to 70-90% of Mexicans have indigenous ancestry. However this number doesn't specifically count race, rather counting the cultural identification of Mexicans.
</ref>}}

==External links==
* [http://www.cdi.gob.mx Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indigenas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117013050/http://www.cdi.gob.mx/ |date=2013-01-17 }} {{in lang|es}}
* [http://www.conapo.gob.mx Consejo Nacional de Poblacion] {{in lang|es}}
* [http://www.inegi.gob.mx Instituto Nacional de Estadistica y Geografia] {{in lang|es}}
* [http://www.familytreedna.com/public/MexicoAmerindian/ Mexico and Southwest USA – Native Y-DNA Project]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101030133405/http://colmex.mx/alim/ Archivo de Lenguas Indígenas de México] (El Colegio de México)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110308020732/http://www.sil.org/MEXICO/museo/0i-Index.htm Virtual museum of the indigenous languages of Mexico]
* [https://indigenouspeoplesandtheborder.wikispaces.com/Information+about+the+Native+American+tribes+that+historically+lived+on+the+US-Mexico+Border Information about the Native American tribes that historically lived on the US-Mexico Border]

{{Indigenous peoples of Mexico}}
{{Indigenous peoples of the Americas}}
{{Cultural areas of indigenous North Americans}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Indigenous peoples in Mexico| ]]
[[Category:Demographics of Mexico]]
[[Category:Society of Mexico]]