View source for Khmu people

{{Short description|Ethnic group of Southeast Asia}}
{{Redirect|Khmu|the language|Khmu language}}
{{Infobox ethnic group|
|group=Khmu/ Kơbru
|image=
|image_caption = 
|pop= c. 800,000
| region1 = {{LAO}}
| pop1 = 708,412 (2015)
| ref1 = <ref name="Census2015">{{cite web|url=https://lao.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/PHC-ENG-FNAL-WEB_0.pdf|title=Results of Population and Housing Census 2015 |publisher=Lao Statistics Bureau |access-date=1 May 2020}}</ref>
| region2 = {{VNM}}
| pop2 = 90,612 (2019)
| ref2 = <ref name="Census2019">{{cite web|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1YK6iY-j0AfZTuip28Py2Gmz5P8zw04Rn/view?usp=sharing|title=Report on Results of the 2019 Census |publisher=General Statistics Office of Vietnam |access-date=1 May 2020}}</ref>
| region3 = {{THA}}
| pop3 = 10,000
| ref3 = 
| region4 = {{CHN}}
| pop4 = 7,000
| ref4 = 
| region5 = United States
| pop5 = 
| ref5 = 
| region6 = [[Burma]]
| pop6 = 
| ref6 = 
|popplace= [[Burma]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], United States
|rels=[[Satsana Phi]], [[Theravada Buddhism]], [[Christianity]]
|langs=[[Khmu language|Khmu]]<br/> [[Lao Language]] (in [[Laos]]) • [[Vietnamese language]] (in [[Vietnam]])
|related= 
}}
[[File:Bokeo BanHuayHao4 tango7174.jpg|thumb|Elderly Khmu woman from [[Bokeo Province]]]]
[[File:Bokeo BanHuayHao5 tango7174.jpg|thumb|Khmu women and their children from [[Bokeo Province]]]]

The '''Khmu''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|m|uː}}; [[Khmu language|Khmu]]: {{IPA|/kmm̥uʔ/ or /kmmúʔ/}}; {{langx|lo|ກຶມມຸ}} {{IPA-lo|kɯ̀m.mūʔ|}} or {{langx|lo|ຂະມຸ}} {{IPA-lo|kʰā.mūʔ|}}; {{langx|th|ขมุ}} {{IPA|th|kʰā.mùʔ|}}; {{langx|nod|ขมุ}} {{IPA-nod|kʰā.mǔʔ|}} ;{{langx|vi|Khơ Mú}}; {{zh|克木族}}; {{langx|my|ခမူ}}) are an [[ethnic group]] of [[Southeast Asia]]. The majority (88%) live in northern [[Laos]] where they constitute the largest minority ethnic group, comprising eleven percent of the total population.<ref name=Michaud>{{cite book|last1=Michaud|first1=Jean|title=Historical Dictionary of The Peoples of the Southeast Asian Massif|date=2006|publisher=Scarecrow Press, Inc. (The Rowman and Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc)|location=Maryland, USA|isbn=9780810854666|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JG619Tq4ElkC&pg=PA125 |access-date=10 June 2014}}</ref> Alternative historical English spellings include '''Kmhmu''', '''Kemu''', and '''Kơbru''', among others.<ref name=Michaud />

The Khmu can also be found in [[southwest China]] (in [[Xishuangbanna]] in [[Yunnan]] province), and in recent centuries have migrated to areas of [[Burma]],  [[Thailand]] and [[Vietnam]] (where they are an officially [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam|recognized]] ethnic group). In the [[People's Republic of China]], however, they are not given official recognition as a separate "national" group, but are rather classified as a subgroup of [[Bulang]].

The [[endonym]] "Khmu" is suspected to stem from their word ''kymhmuʔ''<ref name=Smalley1>{{cite book|last1=Smalley|first1=W.A.|author-link1 = William A. Smalley|editor1-last=LeBar|editor1-first=F.M.|editor2-last=Hickey|editor2-first=Gerald C.|editor3-last=Musgrave|editor3-first=John K.|title=Ethnic Groups of Mainland Southeast Asia|date=June 1964|publisher=Human Relations Area Files|location=New Haven, Connecticut, USA|isbn=0875364012|pages=112–117|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CIZuAAAAMAAJ&q=khmu|access-date=10 June 2014|chapter=The Khmu}}</ref> meaning "people". Khmu also often refer to their ethnicity as ''pruʔ''.<ref name=LeBar>{{cite journal|last1=LeBar|first1=Frank M.|title=OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOVEMENT OF KHMUʔ INTO NORTH THAILAND|journal=Journal of the Siam Society|date=1967|issue=53|pages=61–79|url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1961/JSS_055_1e_Lebar_MovementOfKhmuIntoNorthThailand.pdf|access-date=10 June 2014|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714232345/http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1961/JSS_055_1e_Lebar_MovementOfKhmuIntoNorthThailand.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Geographic distribution==
The Khmu were the indigenous inhabitants of northern Laos. It is generally believed the Khmu once inhabited a much larger area. After the influx of Thai/Lao peoples into the lowlands of Southeast Asia, the Khmu were forced to higher ground ([[Lao Theung]]), above the rice-growing lowland Lao and below the Hmong/Mien groups ([[Lao Sung]]) that inhabit the highest regions, where they practiced [[Slash-and-burn|swidden]] agriculture.<ref name=LeBar /> There are more than 568,000 Khmu around the world, with populations of 500,000 in Laos, 73,000 in Central Highlands of Vietnam, 10,000 in Thailand, 10,000 in China, and an estimated 8,000-10,000 in the United States.<ref name=Michaud />

The Khmu (Kobru) of Laos reside mainly in the North, ranging across 10 provinces. The Khmu form the largest ethnic group, outnumbering even the [[Lao people|Lao]], in five Northern provinces ([[Luang Prabang Province|Luang Prabang]], [[Phongsaly Province|Phongsaly]], [[Oudomxay Province|Oudomxay]], [[Bokeo Province|Bokeo]] and [[Luangnamtha Province|Luangnamtha]] Provinces). The Khmu of Thailand are clustered in [[Nan Province]] near the Thailand-Laos border.<ref name="Khmu Profile">{{Cite web |url=http://www.infomekong.com/peoples/khmu |title=Khmu Profile |access-date=2011-02-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216070146/http://www.infomekong.com/peoples/khmu/ |archive-date=2017-12-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Most Khmu villages are isolated, and only slowly receiving electricity. In many areas the Khmu live alongside the [[Hmong people|Hmong]] and other regional minority ethnic groups. The Khmu in the United States originated as refugees from the [[Vietnam War]]. Most of these refugees settled in [[California]], which is home to both the Khmu National Federation, Inc., and the Khmu Catholic National Center.<ref name="KNF">[https://web.archive.org/web/20090817055921/http://www.khmunational.org/ Khmu National Federation, Inc.]</ref><ref name="KCNC">[http://kmhmu-catholic.org/ Kmhmu Catholic National Center] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208062842/http://kmhmu-catholic.org/ |date=2007-12-08 }}</ref>

Many of the Khmu in Thailand have arrived recently from Laos and Vietnam, also as refugees from the Vietnam War and subsequent communist governments, although cross-border migrations into Thailand's Nan, [[Phayao Province|Phayao]] and [[Chiang Rai Province|Chiang Rai]] provinces for new farm land and work in the [[teak]] industry began as much as 200 years ago.<ref name=LeBar />

==Subgroups==
In their mountain refuges, the various Khmu settlements became isolated, surrounded and partially influenced by the dominant groups of their respective areas. Accordingly, the Khmu now recognize subdivisions among themselves which are differentiated primarily by dialect. These subgroups are called ''tmowy'' ({{IPA|[tmɔi]}}) in Khmu. Some of the larger ''tmowy'' are the [[Tmowy Mea]] [tmɔi mɛ], [[Tmowy Ksak]] [tmɔi ksăk], [[Tmowy Rok]] [tmɔi rɔk] (Lao: ''kha hok'').<ref name=Michaud /><ref name=LeBar /> The Khmu north of the [[Tha River]] (''nam tha''), who often live in close contact with the lowland [[Tai Lue people|Tai Lü]] and [[Northern Thai people|Thai Yuan]] peoples, distinguish groups including the [[Tmowy Lü]] [tmɔi lɯʔ], [[Tmowy Yuan]] and [[Tmowy Khuen]]      (''Khuen'' is often a synonym for "Khmu" in general).<ref name=Michaud />

Aside from their geographical separation, the subgroups' primary differences are in dialect. However, there are slight variations in customs and cultural practices among the various ''tmowy''. The Khmu refer to others within their own ''tmowy'' as ''tay-haem'' ("older siblings-younger siblings"), expressing solidarity and shared ritual/common ancestral worship while referring to other Khmu by the name of their respective groups.<ref name=Michaud />

The Khmu groups north of the Tha River in particular, whose names reflect their partial identification with the Buddhist Tai cultures, have acculturated to the dominant ethnic groups of the region. They are often contrasted with the Khmu Roek who live higher up in the hills and retain some older customs that other groups have abandoned. While the Khmu Roek are often respected as the center of the Khmu "socio-economic ritual complex", "Roek" is also used by more assimilated Khmu as an appellation for "backwood" Khmu regardless of their ''tmowy''.<ref name=Michaud />

==Language==
{{Main|Khmu language}}
The Khmu language belongs to the [[Austro-Asiatic languages|Austro-Asiatic]] language family, in which several closely related languages including [[Ksingmul language|Puoc]], [[O’du language|O’du]] and [[Kniang language|Kniang]], among others, are grouped together forming the [[Khmuic languages|Khmuic]] branch. The many dialects of Khmu differ primarily in consonant inventory, existence of [[register (phonology)|register]], and the degree to which the language has been influenced by the surrounding [[national language]](s).  Dialects are, for the most part, mutually intelligible; however communication can be difficult between speakers of geographically distant dialects.

The dialects of Khmu can be broadly categorized into two groups, Western Khmu and Eastern Khmu.  Western Khmu dialects have fewer consonant phonemes and instead use phonemic register contrast of "lax" [[breathy voice|breathy]] register and "tense" [[modal voice|modal]] register. In at least one dialect of Western Khmu, ''Khmu Roek'', [[tonogenesis]] is evident as the register contrast has developed into a system of two phonemic tones with six phonetic realizations.<ref name=Sulwilai>SUWILAI Premsrirat, author. 2001. "Tonogenesis in Khmu dialects of SEA." ''[[Mon-Khmer Studies]]'' 31: 47-56.</ref>  Eastern Khmu dialects show the opposite tendency. Completely lacking either register or tone distinction, these dialects utilize a three-way distinction of [[Stop consonant|stops]] (voiced, voiceless and aspirated voiceless) and [[nasal consonant|nasals]] (voiced, voiceless, and pre-glottalized) in the syllable-initial position for phonemic contrast.<ref name=KhmuDict>Suwilai, Premsrirat, et al. Mahidol University. [https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_kjg_phon-1 ''Dictionary of Khmu in Laos''].</ref>

Although Khmu language use among peers is currently fairly vigorous, most, if not all, Khmu are also fluent in the language of the culturally dominant group of the area and many regularly use three or even four different languages. The Khmu of Laos, for example, speak [[Lao language|Lao]] when dealing with government officials, engaging in commerce with the lowland Lao, or if attending school. Trade with other highland groups may necessitate knowledge of additional languages, such as [[Hmong language|Hmong]], unless Lao can be used a [[lingua franca]] by both groups. The Khmu of Thailand are more assimilated, often living in villages among the Thai and preferring to speak [[Northern Thai language|Kham Meuang]] even at home in households with two Khmu parents.<ref name=LeBar />

==Origin==
{{See also|Peopling of Laos}}
[[Khmuic peoples]] refers to a group of ethnicities of mainland Southeast Asia that speak closely related languages and follow similar customs and traditions. It is believed, based on linguistic, cultural and historical evidence, that these now-disparate groups are descended from a homogeneous ethnicity that may have been among the first populations to settle northern [[Indochina]]. This historical Khmuic people inhabited areas far larger than at present,<ref name=LeBar /> including northern lowland areas of at least present day Thailand and Laos, until absorbed or pushed into mountainous refuges by successive [[Dvaravati|Mon]] and [[Chenla|Khmer]] [[Khmer Empire|empires]] and the later arrival of various [[Tai peoples]].<ref name=Evrard>{{cite book|last1=Evrard|first1=Olivier|editor1-last=Robinne|editor1-first=Francois|editor2-last=Sadan|editor2-first=Mandy|title=Social Dynamics in the Highlands of Southeast Asia|date=2007|publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV|location=The Netherlands|isbn=9789004160347|pages=127–160|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YitZ0YodsJcC&pg=PA127 |access-date=17 June 2014|chapter=Interethnic systems and localized identities: The Khmu subgroups (''tmoy'') in North-West Laos}}</ref>

==Social structure==
The Khmu are an agricultural society, although gathering, hunting, trapping and fishing are parts of the Khmu lifestyle. Khmu crops include [[rice]] (especially white and black sticky rice), [[Maize|corn]], [[banana]]s, [[sugar cane]], [[cucumbers]], [[beans]], [[sesame]] and a variety of vegetables.<ref name="Khmu Profile"/> Most of the agricultural work in Khmu villages is done communally, so as to combine the strength and finish the work quickly. Harvesting of rice from the swidden field is generally performed by the village women.<ref name="Khmu Rok of Laos">''The Khmu Rok People of Laos'' by John Walsh, Shinawatra International University, March 2005</ref>

Rice is stored outside the village to protect from fire, and in elevated structures to protect from mice and rats.<ref name="Green Discovery">[http://www.greendiscoverylaos.com/travelinfo/facts/khmu.html Facts about the Khmu people]</ref> Khmu elders are traditionally the most important people of the village, and are responsible for resolving all village disputes.<ref name="Community Portrait">[http://www.wildflowers.org/community/LaoKhmu/khmu_portrait.shtml ''Community Portrait: Khmu''], Miriam Gross</ref>

Village leaders included the shaman (knowledgeable in spiritual medicine), the medicine man (knowledgeable in herbal medicine), the priest (based on family lineage of priesthood), and the village headman (in modern times chosen by the Laotian government).<ref name="Community Portrait"/> Laotian Khmu communities generally have localized justice systems administered by the village elders.<ref name="Community Portrait"/>

==Culture==
Khmu culture is traditionally passed down by the recital of stories around evening fires.<ref name="Khmu Rok of Laos"/>  The story-telling sessions involve the sharing of silver pipes (originally opium, but now predominantly tobacco).<ref name="Khmu Rok of Laos"/><ref name="Green Discovery"/> Some Khmu are heavily tattooed for both decorative and religious reasons.<ref name="Khmu Rok of Laos"/><ref name="Green Discovery"/>  In Laos, Khmu are reputed for practicing magic, and some families still engage in the casting of spells and telling of fortunes.<ref name="Khmu Rok of Laos"/> According to the animistic practices of the Khmu, reverence is offered to the house spirit ''Hroi gang''.<ref name="Khmu Rok of Laos"/>

Villagers believe that a Khmu house, village, and its surroundings are integrated with the spirits of the land, and so houses and villages are considered [[holy]] or ritualized spaces.  Typically, entire Khmu villages are enclosed in fences with three or four gates which separate the Khmu from their granaries and barns.<ref name="Community Portrait"/> Altars are placed outside the perimeter to ward off fires and storms.<ref name="Community Portrait"/>

In the past, each Khmu family was believed to be under the protection of a totem such as a boar or an eagle who had originally helped an ancestor and would continue to protect the family. In the past Khmuic people celebrated 4 festivals namely: rice planting, rice harvesting, new year, and wash or get rid of sin festivals. In ancient time Khmuic people celebrated new year festival on the first waxing moon day of the first lunar month. At present day the new year festival is mostly not practiced or if it is, it is integrated with the harvesting festival.<ref name="Community Portrait"/>

An ancient Khmuic house must be laid long along the direction from east to west and never intersected the direction of the sun. However, there are Khmuic who people built their houses intersecting the sun direction. Each house must have a door in the east and another one facing to the north or south. This depends on the situation of the area where the house was built and never build a door in the west side of the house. A house with straight leans must have a large outside balcony (attached with a 5 or 7 step stair) connected from the east door and a lean room with east or north door (attached with a 5 or 7 step stair).<ref name="Community Portrait"/>
[[File:Bokeo BanHuayHao1 tango7174.jpg|thumb|Traditional house of the Khmu people]]
A house with bent leans (half moon shape) must have a large outside balcony (attached with a large 5 or 7 step stair) connected from a small and short lean room connected from the north or south site of the house, and an inside balcony (attached with a 5- or 7-step stair) connected from the east door. Ancient Khmuic people believed and worshiped the sun spirit for safety and health. In the early morning whichever day the sky is clear, when the sun is starting to rise, Khmuic people opened the east doors of their houses to let the sun shine into their houses.<ref name="Community Portrait"/>

There are three explanations for this directionality of house construction: 1. to expel devils, ghosts and bad spirits out of the houses (ancient Khmuic people believed that devils, ghosts or bad spirits fear sunlight); 2. to expel and wash out bacteria and any kinds of small insects dangerous to body and health; 3. Khmuic people also believe that the early morning sunlight is pure and fresh, so exposing one's own body to the early morning sunlight makes one's own mind fresh, good tempered, healthy and active at work. Nowadays, most Khmuic people ignore the beliefs and rules, and don't practice this way of building their houses.<ref name="Community Portrait"/>  Roofs of houses are covered with wooden tiles or thatch.
<ref name="Green Discovery"/>

In cases relating to the harvesting season, Khmuic people also respect the sun as a symbol of clear sky or rain-less weather. During the harvesting season, sometimes the weather was abnormal and it rained, which caused a lot of damage to rice. So, when the rice ripens and its color becomes yellow or orange, and about the time of harvesting, Khmuic people held small rituals to sacrifice rice souls or spirits on the rice fields, mostly are up land rice fields or [[Swidden farming|swidden fields]] ([[Slash-and-burn|slash and burn]] technique which Khmuic people call “hre hngo” [hre̞ʔ hŋɒ̞ʔ]). In the rituals of rice soul sacrifices they hit bronze drum, which Khmuic people call "yan" ([[bronze drum]]) or "heurbang greh" (harvest [[gong]]) to beg the sun to shine well and prevent rain from falling down. In case it rains, they also hit yan and say some sayings to beg for the rain to  stop. During the rainy season if it rains more than usual, Khmuic people also hit yan, and recite sayings to beg for rain to ease or stop for a little while. This is why in the 'Moun Greh ceremony, Khmuic people hit the yan (bronze drum) to thank the sun for shining well during the rice harvesting; and that is why Khmuic people also call bronze drum as “heurbang greh” (harvest gong); in the present day this kind of practice is rare.

Khmu cemeteries are traditionally divided into four sections; one for natural deaths, one for accidental deaths, one for children, and one for those who died away from home.<ref name="Community Portrait"/> The Khmu do not generally believe in rebirth.<ref name="Community Portrait"/> Traditional Khmu animism puts emphasis on the concept of taboo, as villagers believe that violations of taboo result in vengeance of spirits. Forbidden activities include touching the altars or the amulets representing the house's spirit, birth ceremonies for children born feet-first, and entering a house without permission.<ref name="Green Discovery"/>

Dances to propitiate the [[Phosop|rice goddess]] are common among the Khmu people; they are performed in order to ensure a good harvest.<ref>[http://www.vitrifolk.be/divers/divers-vietnam-danse-riz.html La danse du riz de la minorité Kho Mu] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304142447/http://www.vitrifolk.be/divers/divers-vietnam-danse-riz.html |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Hmong people|Hmong]]
* [[Nyaw people]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
*[https://khmuculture.org/ Khmu Culture in Northern Laos].
* [http://person2.sol.lu.se/DamrongTayanin/kammu1.html Kammu home page]
* http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)
* [[hdl:10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66EA-B@view|http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66EA-B@view]] Khmu in RWAAI Digital Archive

{{Ethnic groups in China}}
{{Ethnic groups in Burma}}
{{Ethnic groups in Laos}}
{{Ethnic groups in Thailand}}
{{Ethnic groups in Vietnam|Kho Mu}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ethnic groups in Laos]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in China]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Myanmar]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
[[Category:Khmuic peoples]]