View source for Kiwifruit

{{Short description|Edible berries native to Northeast Asia}}
{{For|the TV series|Kiwifruit (TV series){{!}}''Kiwifruit'' (TV series)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=October 2018}}

[[File:Actinidia fruits.jpg|right|thumb|Kiwifruit by species<br />A = ''A.&nbsp;arguta'', C = ''A.&nbsp;chinensis'', D&nbsp;=&nbsp;''A.&nbsp;deliciosa'', E = ''A.&nbsp;eriantha'', I&nbsp;=&nbsp;''A.&nbsp;indochinensis'', P = ''A.&nbsp;polygama'', S&nbsp;=&nbsp;''A.&nbsp;setosa''.]]
[[File:Kiwifruit cross section.jpg|thumb|Kiwifruit cross section]]
[[File:Kiwifruit 'Gold' cross section.jpg|thumb|[[Yellow kiwi]]fruit]]
[[File:Kiwi's morphology.svg|thumb|Kiwifruit's morphology]]

'''Kiwifruit''' (often shortened to '''kiwi''' outside Australia and New Zealand), or '''Chinese gooseberry''', is the edible [[berry (botany)|berry]] of several species of [[woody vine]]s in the genus ''[[Actinidia]]''.<ref name=Morton /><ref name="PWNEP">{{cite web|url=https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/sites/catalog/files/project/pdf/pnw507.pdf|title=Growing Kiwifruit|year=2005| publisher=Pacific Northwest Extension Publishing |first=Bernadine | last=Stirk|access-date=4 January 2013}}</ref> The most common [[cultivar]] group of kiwifruit (''Actinidia deliciosa'' 'Hayward')<ref name="Beutel">{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1990/v1-309.html|chapter=Kiwifruit | editor1-first=J. | editor1-last=Janick | editor2-first=J.E. | editor2-last=Simon | title=Advances in new crops | year=1990|last=Beutel | first=James A. |publisher=[[Timber Press]] | via=Center for New Crops & Plant Products at Purdue University| pages=309–316 | access-date=11 September 2018}}</ref> is oval, about the size of a large [[Egg (food)|hen's egg]]: {{convert|5|-|8|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=off}} in length and {{convert|4.5|-|5.5|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} in diameter. Kiwifruit has a thin, fuzzy, fibrous, tart but edible, light brown skin and light green or golden flesh with rows of tiny, black, edible seeds. The fruit has a soft texture with a sweet and unique flavour. 

Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern [[China]].<ref name=Morton /> The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to the 12th century during the [[Song dynasty]].<ref name="Ward Courtney 2013">{{cite book | last=Ward | first=Carol | last2=Courtney | first2=David | title=Advances in Food and Nutrition Research | chapter=Kiwifruit: Taking Its Place in the Global Fruit Bowl| publisher=Elsevier | volume=68 | date=2013 | isbn=978-0-12-394294-4 | doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-394294-4.00001-8 | pages=1–14}}</ref> In the early 20th century, cultivation of kiwifruit spread from China to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred.<ref name=Morton /> The fruit became popular with British and American servicemen stationed in New Zealand during [[World War II]], and later became commonly exported, first to Great Britain and then to [[California]] in the 1960s.<ref name=Morton /><ref name="latimes">{{cite news
| url = https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-may-08-fo-kiwi8-story.html| title = Kiwi, Act II| last = Green | first = Emily| newspaper = [[Los Angeles Times]]| date=8 May 2002|access-date=4 January 2013}}</ref>

==Etymology==
Early varieties discovered and cultivated in China, were described in a 1904 [[Plant nursery|nursery]] catalogue as having "...edible fruits the size of [[walnut]]s, and the flavour of ripe [[Gooseberry|gooseberries]]",<ref>[http://arnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu/pdf/articles/1983-43-4-e-h-wilson-yichang-and-the-kiwifruit.pdf "E. H. Wilson, Yichang, and the Kiwifruit"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170505134932/http://arnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu/pdf/articles/1983-43-4-e-h-wilson-yichang-and-the-kiwifruit.pdf |date=5 May 2017 }}, [[Allan Ross Ferguson|A. R. Ferguson]],</ref> leading to the name ''Chinese gooseberry''.<ref name=Morton />

In the late 1950s, a major New Zealand exporter began calling it "kiwifruit" ({{Lang-mi|huakiwi}}) after being advised by a United States client that border officials might associate ''gooseberries'' with the risk of anthrax.<ref>{{Cite dictionary|last=Moorfield|first=John C.|date=2003|title=huakiwi|url=https://maoridictionary.co.nz/search?idiom=&phrase=&proverb=&loan=&histLoanWords=&keywords=kiwifruit|access-date=9 November 2021|dictionary=Te Aka Online Māori Dictionary}}</ref><ref name="Time">{{Cite magazine|last=Lui|first=Kevin|date=8 February 2017|title=How the Chinese Gooseberry Became the Kiwifruit|url=https://time.com/4662293/kiwifruit-chinese-gooseberry-new-zealand-history-fruit/|access-date=9 November 2021|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]|language=en}}</ref> The name was first registered by Turners & Growers on 15 June 1959<ref name="Time" /> and commercially adopted in 1974.<ref name=Morton />

In New Zealand and Australia, the word ''kiwi'' alone either refers to the bird or is used as a [[Kiwi (nickname)|nickname for New Zealanders]]; it is almost never used to refer to the fruit.<ref name="latimes" /><ref name="The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary">{{cite book|last1=Deverson|first1=Tony|last2=Kennedy|first2=Graeme|title=The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-558451-6|ref=NZoxforddictionary2005|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195584516.001.0001}}</ref> Kiwifruit has since become a common name for all commercially grown green kiwifruit from the genus ''Actinidia''.<ref name="Morton">{{cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/kiwifruit_ars.html|title=Kiwifruit: ''Actinidia deliciosa'' In: Fruits of Warm Climates, 1987|publisher=Center for New Crops & Plant Products at Purdue University|author=Morton J|year=2011|access-date=8 April 2014}}</ref> In the United States and Canada, the shortened name ''kiwi'' is commonly used when referring to the fruit.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Bernadine C. Strik |author2=Amanda J. Davis |title=Growing kiwifruit |url=https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/sites/catalog/files/project/pdf/pnw507.pdf |publisher=Extension Service, Oregon State University |access-date=7 April 2021 |date=1 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Northern kiwi |url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/CropOp/en/spec_fruit/vine_fruit/kiwi.html |publisher=Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs |access-date=7 April 2021 |date=17 October 2012}}</ref>

==History==
{{Further|Kiwifruit industry in New Zealand}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|pic=Kiwifruit (Chinese characters).svg
|piccap="Kiwifruit" in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters
|picupright=0.6
|t=獼猴桃
|s=猕猴桃
|l="macaque peach"
|p=míhóutáo
|mi={{IPAc-cmn|m|i|2|.|h|ou|2|.|t|ao|2}} 
|j=mei<sup>4</sup>-hau<sup>4</sup>-tou<sup>4</sup>
}}

Kiwifruit is native to central and eastern China.<ref name=Morton /> The first recorded description of the kiwifruit dates to 12th century China during the [[Song dynasty]].<ref name="Ward Courtney 2013"/> As it was usually collected from the wild and consumed for medicinal purposes, the plant was rarely [[Horticulture|cultivated]] or [[Plant breeding|bred]].<ref name="auto">{{cite journal|last=Huang|first=H.|author2=Ferguson, A. R. |title=Kiwifruit (''Actinidia chinesis'' and ''A. deliciosa'') plantings and production in China, 2002|journal=New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science|year=2003|volume=31|issue=3|pages=197–202|doi=10.1080/01140671.2003.9514253|bibcode=2003NZJCH..31..197H |s2cid=86106541}}</ref> Cultivation of kiwifruit spread from China in the early 20th century to New Zealand, where the first commercial plantings occurred.<ref name=Morton /> After the Hayward variety was developed, the fruit became popular with British and American servicemen stationed in New Zealand during World War II. Kiwifruit were later exported, first to Great Britain and then to [[California]] in the 1960s.<ref name=Morton /><ref name="latimes"/>
[[File:Kiwifruit skin..jpg|thumb|Close-up of Slice of Kiwifruit skin.]]
In New Zealand during the 1940s and 1950s, the fruit became an agricultural commodity through the development of commercially viable cultivars, agricultural practices, shipping, storage, and marketing.<ref name="knowles">{{cite web |author1=Mike Knowles |title=NZ kiwifruit: how a major brand emerged |url=http://www.fruitnet.com/eurofruit/article/172018/nz-kiwifruit-how-a-major-brand-emerged |publisher=Eurofruit, Market Intelligence Ltd - Fruitnet.com |access-date=10 September 2018 |date=25 April 2017}}</ref>

==Species and cultivars==
[[File:Kiwifruit 'Red Passion' cross section - Italy.jpg|thumb|Kiwifruit 'Red Passion' with a red-ring]]
The genus ''Actinidia'' comprises around 60 species. Their fruits are quite variable, although most are easily recognised as kiwifruit because of their appearance and shape. The skin of the fruit varies in size, hairiness and colour. The flesh varies in colour, juiciness, texture and taste. Some fruits are unpalatable, while others taste considerably better than the majority of commercial cultivars.<ref name=Morton /><ref name="PONC1999" />

The most commonly sold kiwifruit is derived from ''[[Actinidia deliciosa|A.&nbsp;deliciosa]]'' (fuzzy kiwifruit). Other species that are commonly eaten include ''[[Actinidia chinensis|A.&nbsp;chinensis]]'' (golden kiwifruit), ''[[Actinidia coriacea|A.&nbsp;coriacea]]'' (Chinese egg gooseberry), ''[[Actinidia arguta|A.&nbsp;arguta]]'' (hardy kiwifruit), ''[[Actinidia kolomikta|A.&nbsp;kolomikta]]'' (Arctic kiwifruit), ''[[Actinidia melanandra|A.&nbsp;melanandra]]'' (purple kiwifruit), ''[[Actinidia polygama|A.&nbsp;polygama]]'' (silver vine) and ''[[Actinidia purpurea|A.&nbsp;purpurea]]'' (hearty red kiwifruit).<ref name="PONC1999" />

===Fuzzy kiwifruit===
[[File:Hardy-Kiwi-Comparison-3.jpg|thumb|The larger ''A. deliciosa'' (fuzzy kiwifruit) at the rear compared to the smaller kiwi berry]]
Most kiwifruit sold belongs to a few cultivars of ''A.&nbsp;deliciosa'' (fuzzy kiwifruit): 'Hayward', 'Blake' and 'Saanichton 12'.<ref name="PWNEP" /> They have a fuzzy, dull brown skin and bright green flesh. The familiar cultivar 'Hayward' was developed by Hayward Wright in [[Avondale, Auckland|Avondale]], New Zealand, around 1924.<ref name="PONC1999">{{cite web|last=Ferguson|first=AR|date=1999|publisher=ASHS Press; Purdue University |location=Alexandria, Virginia|pages=342–347|title=New Temperate Fruits: ''Actinidia chinensis'' and ''Actinidia deliciosa''; In: Perspectives on new crops and new uses, J. Janick (ed.)|url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1999/v4-342.html}}</ref> It was initially grown in domestic gardens, but commercial planting began in the 1940s.

'Hayward' is the most commonly available cultivar in stores. It is a large, egg-shaped fruit with a sweet flavour. 'Saanichton 12', from British Columbia, is somewhat more rectangular than 'Hayward' and comparably sweet, but the inner core of the fruit can be tough. 'Blake' can self-pollinate, but it has a smaller, more oval fruit and the flavour is considered inferior.<ref name="PWNEP" /><ref name="PONC1999" />

===Kiwi berries===
Kiwi berries are edible fruits the size of a large grape, similar to fuzzy kiwifruit in taste and internal appearance but with a thin, smooth green skin. They are primarily produced by three species: ''[[Actinidia arguta]]'' (hardy kiwi), ''[[Actinidia kolomikta|A. kolomikta]]'' (Arctic kiwifruit) and ''[[Actinidia polygama|A. polygama]]'' (silver vine). They are fast-growing, climbing vines, durable over their [[growing season]]. They are referred to as "kiwi berry, baby kiwi, dessert kiwi, grape kiwi, or cocktail kiwi".<ref name=penn>{{cite web|title=Hardy Kiwi|url=http://extension.psu.edu/gardening/fphg/hardy-kiwi|publisher=Penn State University College of Agricultural Sciences|access-date=4 January 2013|archive-date=23 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223101338/http://extension.psu.edu/gardening/fphg/hardy-kiwi|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The cultivar 'Issai' is a hybrid of hardy kiwifruit and silver vine which can self-pollinate. Grown commercially because of its relatively large fruit, 'Issai' is less [[hardiness (plants)|hardy]] than most hardy kiwifruit.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJiaAAAAIAAJ&q=Grown+commercially+Issai+is+less+hardy+than+most+hardy+kiwi |title=Annual report ... annual meeting|date=1 January 1996|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/berrygrowerscomp0000bowl|url-access=registration|quote=Grown commercially Issai is less hardy than most hardy kiwi.|title=The Berry Grower's Companion|first=Barbara L.|last=Bowling|date=1 January 2000|publisher=Timber Press|via=Internet Archive|isbn=978-0-88192-489-3}}</ref>

===''Actinidia chinensis''===
{{main|Gold kiwifruit}}
[[File:Kiwifruit - Golden (Soreli).jpg|thumb|Golden kiwifruit Soreli]]
''Actinidia chinensis'' (yellow kiwi or golden kiwifruit) has a smooth, bronze skin, with a beak shape at the stem attachment. Flesh colour varies from bright green to a clear, intense yellow. This species is 'sweeter and more aromatic' in flavour compared to ''A.&nbsp;deliciosa''.<ref name=zespri/> One of the most attractive varieties has a red 'iris' around the centre of the fruit and yellow flesh outside. The yellow fruit obtains a higher market price and, being less hairy than the fuzzy kiwifruit, tastes better without peeling.<ref name="PONC1999" />

A commercially viable<ref name="NZE_Enza_red">{{cite web|url=http://exportermagazine.co.nz/news/enzared-kiwifruit-set-take-world-stage|title=EnzaRed kiwifruit set to take on world stage|date=14 June 2010|publisher=New Zealand Exporter|access-date=4 January 2013|archive-date=16 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216173137/http://exportermagazine.co.nz/news/enzared-kiwifruit-set-take-world-stage|url-status=dead}}</ref> variety of this red-ringed kiwifruit, patented as EnzaRed, is a cultivar of the Chinese ''hong yang'' variety.<ref name="HYChin">{{cite journal|last=Yang|first=Hong-Li|author2=Wang, Yan-Chang |author3=Jiang, Zheng-Wang |author4= Huang, Hong-Wen |title=[Construction of cDNA library of 'Hongyang' kiwifruit and analysis of F3H expression]|journal=Yi Chuan|year=2009|volume=31|issue=12|pages=1265–1272 |pmid=20042395|language=zh }}</ref><ref name="NBR_Enza_red">{{cite news|url=http://www.nbr.co.nz/article/turners-plugs-its-enza-red-kiwifruit-grown-china-119102|title=Turners plugs its Enza red kiwifruit – grown in China|date=24 February 2010|newspaper=National Business Review|access-date=4 January 2013|archive-date=24 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424141113/http://www.nbr.co.nz/article/turners-plugs-its-enza-red-kiwifruit-grown-china-119102|url-status=dead}}</ref>

'Hort16A' is a golden kiwifruit cultivar marketed worldwide as ''Zespri Gold''. This cultivar suffered significant losses in New Zealand in 2010–2013 due to the [[Pseudomonas syringae|PSA]] bacterium.<ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions: How Was Zespri Gold Kiwifruit Developed? |url=http://www.zespri.com/about-zespri/faqs.html |publisher=Zespri Kiwifriut |access-date=4 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117141729/http://www.zespri.com/about-zespri/faqs.html |archive-date=17 January 2013 }}</ref> A new cultivar of golden kiwifruit, ''Gold3'', was found to be more disease-resistant and most growers have now changed to this cultivar.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Golden times return for kiwifruit trade|journal=NZ Herald|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=11261601|date=26 May 2014|access-date=29 August 2014}}</ref> 'Gold3', marketed by Zespri as ''SunGold'' is not quite as sweet as 'Hort16A',<ref>{{cite web|title=Zespri SunGold New! |url=http://www.zespri.com.sg/KP_ZVariety.asp |publisher=Zespri |access-date=29 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140815040948/http://www.zespri.com.sg/KP_ZVariety.asp |archive-date=15 August 2014 }}</ref> and lacks its usually slightly pointed tip.

Clones of the new variety ''SunGold'' have been used to develop orchards in China, resulting in partially successful legal efforts in China by Zespri to protect their [[intellectual property]].<ref name="McClure2021">{{cite news |last1=McClure |first1=Tess |title=Kiwi wars: the golden fruit fuelling a feud between New Zealand and China |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jun/18/kiwi-wars-the-golden-fruit-fuelling-a-feud-between-new-zealand-and-china |access-date=30 June 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=18 June 2021}}</ref> In 2021, Zespri estimated that around 5,000 hectares of ''Sungold'' orchards were being cultivated in China, mainly in the [[Sichuan province]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-06-02/china-new-zealand-kiwifruit-trade-impacts-/100129232 |title=Cuttings of prized SunGold kiwifruits were smuggled to China and NZ growers are divided over what to do about it |newspaper=ABC News |date=June 2021 |publisher=ABC}}</ref>

==Cultivation==
Kiwifruit can be grown in most temperate climates with adequate summer heat. Where fuzzy kiwifruit (''A. deliciosa'') is not hardy, other species can be grown as substitutes.

===Breeding===
[[File:Kiwifruit-Actinidia deliciosa-plantation.jpg|thumb|Kiwifruit growing on supported vine]]
Often in commercial farming, different breeds are used for [[rootstock]], fruit bearing plants and [[pollinators]].<ref name=Morton /> Therefore, the seeds produced are [[crossbreed]]s of their parents. Even if the same breeds are used for pollinators and fruit bearing plants, there is no guarantee that the fruit will have the same quality as the parent. Additionally, [[seedling]]s take seven years before they flower, so determining whether the kiwifruit is fruit bearing or a pollinator is time-consuming.<ref name="ucd">{{cite web |url=http://fruitandnuteducation.ucdavis.edu/education/fruitnutproduction/Kiwi/Kiwi_Propagation/ |title=Kiwifruit Propagation |publisher=University of California-Davis, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources|date=2015|access-date=14 July 2015}}</ref> Therefore, most kiwifruits, with the exception of rootstock and new [[cultivar]]s, are propagated [[asexual reproduction|asexually]].<ref name="ucd" /> This is done by grafting the fruit producing plant onto rootstock grown from seedlings or, if the plant is desired to be a true cultivar, rootstock grown from cuttings of a mature plant.<ref name="ucd" />

===Pollination===
[[File:Kiwifruit Female Flowers.JPG|thumb|Kiwifruit flowering]]
Kiwifruit plants generally are [[dioecious]], meaning a plant is either male or female. The male plants have flowers that produce pollen, the females receive the pollen to fertilise their ovules and grow fruit; most kiwifruit requires a male plant to [[pollinate]] the female plant. For a good yield of fruit, one male vine for every three to eight female vines is considered adequate.<ref name=Morton /> Some varieties can self pollinate, but even they produce a greater and more reliable yield when pollinated by male kiwifruit.<ref name=Morton /> Cross-species pollination is often (but not always) successful as long as bloom times are synchronised.

In nature, the species are pollinated by birds and native bumblebees, which visit the flowers for pollen, not nectar. The female flowers produce fake anthers with what appears to be pollen on the tips in order to attract the pollinators, although these fake anthers lack the DNA and food value of the male anthers.<ref name="Kiwifruit pollination problems">{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/72-kiwifruit-pollination-problems|title=Kiwifruit pollination problems|website=Science Learning Hub}}</ref>

Kiwifruit growers rely on [[honey bee]]s, the principal ‘for-hire’ pollinator, but commercially grown kiwifruit is notoriously difficult to pollinate. The flowers are not very attractive to honey bees, in part because the flowers do not produce nectar and bees quickly learn to prefer flowers with nectar.

Honey bees are inefficient cross-pollinators for kiwifruit because they practice “floral fidelity”. Each honey bee visits only a single type of flower in any foray and maybe only a few branches of a single plant. The pollen needed from a different plant (such as a male for a female kiwifruit) might never reach it were it not for the cross-pollination that principally occurs in the crowded colony; it is in the colonies that bees laden with different pollen literally cross paths.<ref>https://honeybeesuite.com/how-bees-transfer-pollen-between-flowers/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120093519/https://honeybeesuite.com/how-bees-transfer-pollen-between-flowers/ |date=20 January 2019 }} Honey Bee Suite</ref>

To deal with these pollination challenges, some producers blow collected pollen over the female flowers.<ref name="Kiwifruit pollination problems"/> Most common, though, is [[saturation pollination]], in which the honey bee populations are made so large (by placing hives in the orchards at a concentration of about 8 hives per hectare) that bees are forced to use this flower because of intense competition for all flowers within flight distance.<ref name=Morton />

===Maturation and harvest===
Kiwifruit is picked by hand and commercially grown on sturdy support structures, as it can produce several tonnes per hectare, more than the rather weak vines can support. These are generally equipped with a watering system for irrigation and frost protection in the spring.

Kiwifruit vines require vigorous pruning, similar to that of grapevines. Fruit is borne on 'one-year-old and older' canes, but production declines as each cane ages. Canes should be pruned off and replaced after their third year. In the northern hemisphere the fruit ripens in November, while in the southern it ripens in May. Four year-old plants can produce 15 tonnes of fruit per hectare (14,000 lb per acre) while eight year-old plants can produce 20 tonnes (18,000 lb per acre). The plants produce their maximum at eight to ten years old. The seasonal yields are variable; a heavy crop on a vine one season generally comes with a light crop the following season.<ref name=Morton />

===Storage===
Fruit harvested when firm will ripen when stored properly for long periods. This allows fruit to be stored up to 8 weeks after harvest.<ref name=Morton />

Firm kiwifruit ripen after a few days to a week when stored at room temperature, but should not be kept in direct sunlight. Faster ripening occurs when placed in a paper bag with an apple, pear, or banana.<ref name=ukfoodguide>{{cite web|title=Kiwi fruit|url=http://www.ukfoodguide.net/kiwifruit.htm|publisher=The UK Food Guide|access-date=4 January 2013}}</ref> Once a kiwifruit is ripe, however, it is preserved optimally when stored far from other fruits, as it is very sensitive to the [[Ethylene as a plant hormone|ethylene]] gas they may emit, thereby tending to over-ripen even in the refrigerator.<ref name=ukfoodguide /> If stored appropriately, ripe kiwifruit normally keep for about one to two weeks.<ref name=ukfoodguide />

===Pests and diseases===
''[[Pseudomonas syringae]] actinidiae'' (PSA) was first identified in Japan in the 1980s. This bacterial strain has been controlled and managed successfully in orchards in Asia. In 1992, it was found in northern Italy. In 2007/2008, economic losses were observed, as a more virulent strain became more dominant (PSA V).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests/kiwifruit-vine-disease |title=''Kiwifruit vine disease'' by MAF Biosecurity NZ |access-date=18 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312133422/http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests/kiwifruit-vine-disease |archive-date=12 March 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/nelson-mail/features/primary-focus/4577177/More-virulent-PSA-strain-a-new-worry-for-kiwifruit-growers |title= More virulent PSA strain a new worry for kiwifruit growers |newspaper=The Dominion Post |first = Peter |last= Watson|date= 2011-01-25 |access-date=2011-09-04 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10747234 |title= Relief for kiwifruit industry |newspaper=The New Zealand Herald |first = Owen |last= Hembry |date= 2011-08-25 |access-date=2011-09-04 }}</ref> In 2010 it was found in New Zealand's [[Bay of Plenty Region]] kiwifruit orchards in the North Island.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/media/8-11-10/suspected-bacterial-vine-infection|title=Suspected Bacterial Vine Infection|date=8 November 2010|publisher=MAF Biosecurity New Zealand|access-date=9 November 2010|archive-date=13 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113200914/http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/media/8-11-10/suspected-bacterial-vine-infection|url-status=dead}}</ref> The yellow-fleshed cultivars were particularly susceptible. New, resistant varieties were selected in research funded by the government and fruit growers so that the industry could continue.<ref name="Kiwi & PSA">{{cite web |title=Kiwifruit and Psa – a timeline |url=https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/interactive_timeline/10-kiwifruit-and-psa-a-timeline |website=Science Learning Hub – Pokapu Akoranga Putaiao |publisher=Curious Minds – New Zealand Government |access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref>

Scientists reported they had worked out the strain of PSA affecting kiwifruit from New Zealand, Italy and Chile originated in China.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Butler|first=Margi I.|author2=Stockwell, Peter A. |author3=Black, Michael A. |author4=Day, Robert C. |author5=Lamont, Iain L. |author6= Poulter, Russel T. M. |title=''Pseudomonas syringae'' pv. ''actinidiae'' from Recent Outbreaks of Kiwifruit Bacterial Canker Belong to Different Clones That Originated in China|journal=PLOS ONE|date=February 2013|volume=8|issue=2|pages=e57464|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0057464|pmid=23555547|bibcode=2013PLoSO...857464B |pmc=3583860|doi-access=free}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Production==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; text-align:center; width:14em;"
|+ Kiwifruit production<br><small>2022, tonnes</small>
|-
|{{CHN}} ||2,380,304
|-
|{{NZL}} ||603,522
|-
|{{ITA}} ||523,120
|-
|{{GRE}} ||320,270
|-
|{{IRN}} ||294,571
|-
|{{CHI}} || 114,533
|-
|'''World''' ||'''4,539,471'''
|-
|colspan=2|<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the United Nations</small><ref name="faostat">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |title=Kiwifruit production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists) |year=2024 |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) |access-date=6 August 2024}}</ref>
|}

In 2022, world production of kiwifruit was 4.5 million [[tonnes]], led by China with 52% of the total. In China, kiwifruit is grown mainly in the mountainous area upstream of the [[Yangtze|Yangtze River]], as well as [[Sichuan]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Huang|first=H.|author2=Ferguson, A. R. |title=Review: Kiwifruit in China|journal=New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science|year=2001|volume=29|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1080/01140671.2001.9514154|bibcode=2001NZJCH..29....1H |s2cid=84613254}}</ref> Other major producers were [[New Zealand]] and [[Italy]].

===Production history===
Kiwifruit exports rapidly increased from the late '1960s to early 1970s' in New Zealand. By 1976, exports exceeded the amount consumed domestically.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10289/5794/Economics_wp_1108.pdf?sequence=1 |title=New Zealand Kiwifruit Export Performance: Market Analysis and Revealed Comparative Advantage |publisher=University of Waikato |author1=Sayeeda Bano |author2=Frank Scrimgeour |date= June 2011|access-date=28 November 2012 }}</ref> Outside of [[Australasia]], New Zealand kiwifruit are marketed under the brand-name label [[Kiwifruit industry in New Zealand|Zespri]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Zespri History |url=http://www.zespri.com/about-zespri/history.html |publisher=Zespri Kiwifruit |access-date=4 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111052329/http://www.zespri.com/about-zespri/history.html |archive-date=11 January 2013 }}</ref> The general name, "Zespri", has been used for marketing of all cultivars of kiwifruit from New Zealand since 2012.<ref name=knowles/><ref name="zespri">{{cite web |title=Zespri – Official Site |url=http://www.zespri.com/ |publisher=Zespri Group Ltd. |access-date=10 September 2018 |date=2018}}</ref>

In the 1980s, many countries outside New Zealand began to grow and export kiwifruit.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Skallerud |first1= Kare |last2= Olsen |first2= Svein |s2cid= 154770824 |year= 2011 |title= Export Market Arrangements in Four New Zealand Agriculture Industries: An Institutional Perspective |journal= Journal of International Food and Agribusiness Marketing |volume= 23 |issue= 4 |pages= 310–329|doi=10.1080/08974438.2011.621841}}</ref> In Italy, the infrastructure and techniques required to support grape production were adapted to the kiwifruit. This, coupled with being close to the European kiwifruit market, led to Italians becoming the leading producer of kiwifruit in 1989. The growing season of Italian kiwifruit does not overlap much with the New Zealand or the Chilean growing seasons, therefore direct competition between New Zealand or Chile was not a significant factor.<ref name="STITALY">{{cite news
 |url=http://seattletimes.com/html/nationworld/2004438598_italy26.html 
 |title=Italy leads world as top producer of kiwis 
 |last=Wilkinson 
 |first=Tracy 
 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times 
 |date=26 May 2008 
 |access-date=4 January 2013 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130413080819/http://seattletimes.com/html/nationworld/2004438598_italy26.html 
 |archive-date=13 April 2013 
}}</ref>

Much of the [[plant breeding|breeding]] to refine the green kiwifruit was undertaken by the [[Plant & Food Research]] Institute (formerly HortResearch) during the decades of  '1970–1999'.<ref name=knowles/> In 1990, the New Zealand Kiwifruit Marketing Board opened an office for Europe in [[Antwerp]], [[Belgium]].<ref name=knowles/>

==Human consumption==
[[File:Pavlova dessert.JPG|left|thumb|A [[Pavlova (cake)|pavlova]] with strawberries, passionfruit, kiwifruit and cream]]
<div style="float: right; clear: right;">
{{stack begin}}
{{nutritional value | name=Kiwifruit, Zespri SunGold, raw
| kJ=262
| water=82 g
| protein=1.02 g
| fat=0.28 g
| carbs=15.8 g
| fiber=1.4 g
| sugars=12.3 g
| calcium_mg=17
| iron_mg=0.21
| magnesium_mg=12
| manganese_mg=0.048
| phosphorus_mg=25
| potassium_mg=315
| sodium_mg=3
| selenium_ug=0.4
| zinc_mg=0.08
| copper_mg=0.151
| vitA_ug=
| vitC_mg=161.3
| thiamin_mg=0
| riboflavin_mg=0.074
| niacin_mg=0.231
| pantothenic_mg=0.12
| vitB6_mg=0.079
| folate_ug=31
| vitB12_ug=0.08
| choline_mg=1.9
| lutein_ug=24
| vitE_mg=1.4
| vitK_ug=6.1
| source_usda = 1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168211/nutrients Link to USDA FoodData Central entry]
}}
{{stack end}}
{{stack begin}}
{{nutritional value | name=Kiwifruit, green, raw
| kJ=255
| water=83 g
| protein=1.14 g
| fat=0.52 g
| carbs=14.66 g
| fiber=3 g
| sugars=8.99 g
| calcium_mg=34
| iron_mg=0.31
| magnesium_mg=17
| manganese_mg=0.098
| phosphorus_mg=34
| potassium_mg=312
| sodium_mg=3
| selenium_ug=0.2
| zinc_mg=0.14
| copper_mg=0.13
| vitA_IU=
| vitC_mg=92.7
| thiamin_mg=0.027
| riboflavin_mg=0.025
| niacin_mg=0.341
| pantothenic_mg=0.183
| vitB6_mg=0.063
| folate_ug=25
| vitB12_ug=0
| choline_mg=7.8
| lutein_ug=122
| vitE_mg=1.46
| vitK_ug=40.3
| source_usda = 1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/168153/nutrients Link to USDA FoodData Central entry]
}}
{{stack end}}
</div>

Kiwifruit may be eaten raw, made into juices, used in baked goods, prepared with meat or used as a garnish.<ref name=Morton /> The whole fruit, including the skin, is suitable for human consumption; however, the skin of the fuzzy varieties is often discarded due to its texture.<ref>''Kiwifruit: Science and Management'' {{ISBN|978-0-908-59628-7}} p. 467</ref> Sliced kiwifruit has long been used as a garnish atop [[whipped cream]] on [[pavlova (food)|pavlova]], a meringue-based dessert. Traditionally in China, kiwifruit was not eaten for pleasure, but was given as medicine to children to help them grow and to women who have given birth to help them recover.<ref name=Morton />

Raw kiwifruit contains [[actinidain]] (also spelled ''actinidin'') which is commercially useful as a [[meat tenderizer]]<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=24499119|year=2014|last1=Bekhit|first1=A. A.|title=Exogenous proteases for meat tenderization|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=54|issue=8|pages=1012–31|last2=Hopkins|first2=D. L.|last3=Geesink|first3=G|last4=Bekhit|first4=A. A.|last5=Franks|first5=P|s2cid=57554|doi=10.1080/10408398.2011.623247}}</ref> and possibly as a [[digestion|digestive aid]].<ref name="Boland 2013 pp. 59–80">{{cite book | author-last=Boland | author-first=Mike | editor-last1=Boland | editor-first1=Mike | editor-last2=Moughan | editor-first2=P. J. | title=Advances in Food and Nutrition Research | chapter=Kiwifruit Proteins and Enzymes | publisher=Elsevier | volume=68 | date=2013 | isbn=978-0-12-394294-4 | doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-394294-4.00004-3 | pages=59–80}}</ref> Actinidain also makes raw kiwifruit unsuitable for use in desserts containing milk or any other dairy products because the enzyme digests milk proteins. This applies to [[gelatin]]-based desserts, due to the fact that the actinidain will dissolve the proteins in gelatin, causing the dessert to either liquefy or prevent it from solidifying.

===Nutrition===
In a {{convert|100|g|adj=on}} amount, green kiwifruit provides {{convert|255|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} of [[food energy]], is 83% water and 15% [[carbohydrate]]s, with negligible [[protein]] and [[fat]] (table). It is particularly rich in [[vitamin C]] (103% DV) and [[vitamin K]] (34% DV), has a moderate content of [[vitamin E]] (10% DV), with no other [[micronutrient]]s in significant content. Gold kiwifruit has similar nutritional value to green kiwifruit, but contains higher vitamin C content (179% DV) and insignificant vitamin K content (table).

Kiwifruit seed oil contains on average 62% [[alpha-linolenic acid]], an [[omega-3 fatty acid]].<ref name=sofadb>{{cite journal |url=https://agritrop.cirad.fr/534935/1/document_534935.pdf |last1=Piombo |first1=Georges |last2=Barouh |first2=Nathalie |last3=Barea |first3=Bruno |last4=Renaud |first4=Boulanger |last5=Brat |first5=Pierre |last6=Pina |first6=Michel |last7=Villeneuve |first7=Pierre |title=Characterization of the seed oils from kiwi (Actinidia chinensis), passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) and guava (Psidium guajava) |journal=OCL – Oilseeds and Fats, Crops and Lipids |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=195–199 |year=2006 |doi=10.1051/ocl.2006.0026 }}</ref> Kiwifruit pulp contains [[carotenoid]]s, such as [[provitamin A]] [[beta-carotene]],<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kim M, Kim SC, Song KJ, Kim HB, Kim IJ, Song EY, Chun SJ |s2cid=23341156 |title=Transformation of carotenoid biosynthetic genes using a micro-cross section method in kiwifruit (''Actinidia deliciosa'' cv. Hayward) |journal=Plant Cell Reports |volume=29|issue=12|pages=1339–1349|date=Sep 2010 |pmid=20842364 |doi=10.1007/s00299-010-0920-y}}</ref> [[lutein]] and [[zeaxanthin]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sommerburg O, Keunen JE, Bird AC, van Kuijk FJ |title=Fruits and vegetables that are sources for lutein and zeaxanthin: the macular pigment in human eyes |journal=British Journal of Ophthalmology |volume=82 |issue=8 |pages=907–910 |date=August 1998 |pmid=9828775 |pmc=1722697 |doi=10.1136/bjo.82.8.907}}</ref>

===Allergies===
Allergy to kiwifruit was first described in 1981, and there have since been reports of the allergy presenting with numerous symptoms from localized oral allergy syndrome to life-threatening anaphylaxis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lucas|first1=Jane SA|last2=Lewis|first2=Stella A.|last3=Hourihane|first3=Jonathan O'B|date=2003|title=Kiwi fruit allergy: A review|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.0905-6157.2003.00095.x|journal=Pediatric Allergy and Immunology|language=en|volume=14|issue=6|pages=420–428|doi=10.1046/j.0905-6157.2003.00095.x|pmid=14675467|s2cid=26882598|issn=1399-3038}}</ref>

The [[actinidain]] found in kiwifruit can be an [[allergen]] for some individuals, including children.<ref name="sydney">{{cite web|title = Allergy – Fruit and Vegetable Allergy {{!}} The Sydney Children's Hospitals Network|url = http://www.schn.health.nsw.gov.au/parents-and-carers/fact-sheets/allergy-fruit-and-vegetable-allergy|website = www.schn.health.nsw.gov.au|access-date = 2015-10-15}}</ref><ref name="lucas">{{cite journal|last=Lucas|first=J.S. |author2=Lewis, S.A. |author3=Hourihane, J.O.|title=Kiwi fruit allergy: a review|journal= Pediatr Allergy Immunol|year=2003 |volume=14|issue=6 |pages=420–428|pmid=14675467|doi=10.1046/j.0905-6157.2003.00095.x|s2cid=26882598 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Le TM et al. |title=Kiwifruit allergy across Europe: clinical manifestation and IgE recognition patterns to kiwifruit allergens |journal=Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology |year=2013|volume=131|issue=1|pages=164–171|doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2012.09.009|pmid=23141741|doi-access=free}}</ref> The most common symptoms are unpleasant itching and soreness of the mouth, with [[wheezing]] as the most common severe symptom; [[anaphylaxis]] may occur.<ref name="sydney" /><ref name="lucas" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite magazine|title=The Captivating Kiwifruit|first=Noel D.|last=Vietmeyer|magazine=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]|pages=683–688|volume=171|issue=5|date=May 1987|issn=0027-9358|oclc=643483454}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category inline|Kiwifruits}}
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Actinidia}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Kiwifruit| ]]
[[Category:Actinidia]]
[[Category:Edible fruits]]
[[Category:Berries]]
[[Category:Chinese fruit]]
[[Category:Food plant cultivars]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Vines]]
[[Category:Culture of New Zealand]]