American Latinas in World War II
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Latina Women, or women of Latin-American descent, contributed much to the war effort during World War II. Especially in times of turmoil, Latina women gather, advocate, and work in order to support the United States. This willingness to sacrifice for their country, even when stereotypes and discrimination were present in everyday life, was especially powerful during World War II. This period gave Latina women the opportunity to express their own agency and examine their roles as women and Latinas in the context of American society. Through their support of U.S. war efforts both overseas and on the homefront, these women began to question their societal status and call for changes within their culture and country.
Before the War
In the aftermath of World War I, countries of Europe were left in debt from the war, inflation started to rise, and the United States suffered from a Great Depression.[2] The political and social changes around the world proved volatile. The United States opposed the fascist regimes that were gaining ground around the world, but it was not until December 1941 that the U.S. entered into the War after the December 7 attacks on Pearl Harbor incited public support and Congress declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941.[2] This began U.S. involvement in World War II and set the stage for Latina involvement as well.[2]
Latinos in the U.S.
While Latinos, men and women of Latin American descent, had served in World War I and promoted the efforts of the United States overseas and on the home front, Latinos in many areas of the country were still suffering from discrimination.[3] Indeed, although many joined the military or worked in the fields in order to continue production, and a large number of Latinos moved to northern states in order to support the industrial sector of the economy, they were often blamed for the economic problems the country was now facing[3] In fact, Herbert Hoover even went so far as to place blame on undocumented Latinos for the economic pitfalls and high unemployment rates during the Great Depression.[4] In order to combat the criticisms of organized labor, Secretary of Labor William Doaks reinvigorated the The Immigration and Naturalization Service and advocated for the use of random raids and the use of repatriation trains to send those found to be undocumented or unable to prove their citizenship back to their home country.[4]
This use of fear and political rhetoric to categorize Latinos in the United States as the “other” helped in the creation of stereotypes and contributed to ideas that many Latino Americans were treated as though “they were invisible men and women -- part of the landscape, supporting actors in a drama that purported only to affect them, not to be affected by them.[5] This thought, that Latino Americans simply sat on the sidelines and were not involved in the war efforts and mainstream society during and after World War I was not based on fact, but rather societal stereotypes. Many Latinos found themselves continuing to experience racial discrimination and unfair treatment in much of the United States, with fear and inequality being common threads uniting many of the Latino experiences in the United States during this time period.[6]
Latina women faced this discrimination because of their racial and ethnic backgrounds, but were also treated unfairly because of their gender. Gender roles were clearly outlined in the U.S. at this time, and were particularly strong in Latino culture as well. While the 19th amendment granting women the right to vote was passed in 1919, gaining equality in society was another issue. Despite this discrimination, many Latina women answered the country’s call for support during World War II, both overseas and on the home front.
Latinas at War
Life Overseas
During World War II the Women’s Army Corps and the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps were created alongside the existing Army Nurse Corps. This gave women the chance to work not only as nurses, but as uniformed members of the armed forces. Latina women were even sought after for positions as “cyrtpologists and in correspondence and communications” because of their knowledge of Spanish.[8]
Life overseas was difficult for many members of the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps because they were not protected by the same international laws as prisoners of war. Furthermore, they were not granted the same benefits as their male counterparts and often faced gender discrimination and well as racial discrimination while overseas and within their respective units. The opportunity to go overseas did, however, open possibilities for Latina women who had not been trained in a trade before, and for many this was their first job outside the home and domestic duties, which provided invaluable experience for many Latinas seeking to expand their knowledge into more technical fields and contribute to the war effort.[9] The opportunity to aid in the efforts overseas also allowed many Latinas to travel and see parts of the world that they never would have been given the opportunity to see had it not been for their involvement in the war.
Women worked in positions such as nurses, technical agents, mechanics, and telegram operators overseas. In these positions, women gained new skills and a sense of "personal freedom" achieved by leaving their towns and communities.[9] This increased their individual agency and set them up for success upon returning home.
Returning Home
While women were a vital part of the military’s success, they did not always receive recognition. This disparity is even greater when looking at the recognition of Latina Women in the armed forces and their work as nurses overseas.
As Latina women returned to the United States, many expected to be welcomed as heroes who had served their country valiantly, however this was not the case. They were discriminated against because of their gender and their military status did not change the perception of Latinas in the eyes of much of the American public at the time. To many, they were still seen as second class citizens, foreigners, and others. In their local communities, many of these women who had served in the armed forces or as nurses during the war returned to their hometowns and respective communities. Many Latinas hoped their service to military efforts would be a springboard for which to jumpstart their educational or career goals, and it was. Women entered the workforce in greater numbers after World War II and were able to bypass many of the cultural norms surrounding women's roles in and outside of the home through military service.[11]
While Latina women made powerful connections in their time overseas and assisting various branches of the military, there were also some issues with re-acclimation. Returning home was sometimes difficult due the failure of the government to give them the same social benefits as their male counterparts. While males experienced the same discrimination based on race back in the United States, they were also given benefits from things like the GI Bill which granted them the ability to go to college and buy homes. The contributions of Latinas throughout the war were notable and courageous, but have been overlooked by many. Another point of conflict existed between the women who served overseas and women who stayed on the home front. There was often underlying tension and judgement of women who had enlisted to serve in the WAAC as "drinkers and smokers" or morally dubious women by those who remained in the United States.[11] While the women who served overseas did much to contribute to the war effort, those who remained on the homefront also contributed to the country's fight.
Latinas on the Home Front
Agriculture
One of the biggest sources of agricultural jobs for Mexicans in the United States during World War II was the Bracero Program. Briefly, it was a temporary work agreement between the United States and Mexico through which Mexican workers would be sent to the United States for a certain amount of time, and would then return to Mexico. Women were not enlisted into the Bracero Program, however it still had a profound effect on Latinas. When Mexican men entered into the Bracero Program, they often left behind their wives alone to raise their family back in Mexico. With only one caretaker in Mexico, and because it took a long time for funds from the Bracero Program to actually be sent back to Mexico, many women were forced into undocumented migration into the United States.[12] Many women never made it across the border, further separating families and deepening issues between the United States and Mexico.[12]
In addition to women being forced to attempt crossing the border to support their families, there were also women who, now that their husband had left to go to the United States, they were left with the family business back in Mexico. It was never acknowledged, but due to the Bracero Program, women in Mexico were now transitioning into more decision-making roles and participating more heavily in their family businesses.[13]
Industry
As exemplified by the iconic image of Rosie the Riveter, during World War II due to the increasing lack of men on the home front, women started to migrate into more factory and industry-based jobs. In addition, not only were men leaving their factory jobs to enlist in the Army, the need for factory workers was increasing as the need for defense production increased. As this need increased, "Factory managers considered 'the degree to which womanpower might take the place of manpower ... on the factory floor.'"[11] What is not identified by Rosie the Riveter, is that many of the women taking up these position were, in fact, Latinas. Latina women started to fill the positions left behind by men, and as the war progressed these factories started to produce parts for weapons, ships, or aircraft as opposed to whatever products they produced pre-war. The Friedrich Refrigeration Company in San Antonio, Texas, was on contract to make parts for bombs, and much of the company's workforce consisted of Mexican-American women.[11]
As well as working in these sorts of factory jobs, Latinas became a big part of the workforce in sweatshops, especially right after World War II. Latinas could be very low-wage workers, and U.S. industries, such as the garment industry took advantage of that. The garment industry would continue to relocate to lower-wage areas, and Latina women in need of work would migrate to where the jobs were.[14]
Societal Effects
The transition from domestic life into working life, or from less intensive jobs into higher intensity positions, for Latinas during WWII had major societal effects. Women working in industrial jobs led to a relaxation of gender roles. Their new roles in the workforce required new attire, such as coveralls, overalls, pants, and big heavy shoes, none of which would have been seen as women's attire prior to this shift of women into industry.[11] In addition to new clothing, the shift in work meant women were acquiring new skills, aiding in the changing societal gender norms.[11] The image of Rosie the Riveter was also an interesting one considering World War II's societal effects on Latinas. She was portrayed as a white woman, but represented many more than just white women in that time. In fact, the majority of women who embodied the "denim-clad, tool-wielding, can-do figure" were not white women, but rather women of color.[11]
In addition to the societal change from women in the home to working women, Latina women also took part in the Pachuca and Zoot Suit culture of World War II. The women's participation in this, as feminizing the zoot suit to fit their needs, showcased the newfound mobility and agency gained from the War. The female zoot suiters were bold, knowing that they were challenging gender norms. They were excluded from history for their failure to fit the masculine profile, however the women pachucas can be seen as a symbol of independence.[11]
Aftermath
As servicemen returned home from World War II, employment opportunities for women and especially women of color decreased. Post-war reconversion efforts lead to first the firing of Latina and African American women followed by intense social pressures for all women to leave the workforce and return to domestic lives. With the economy shifting from wartime to peace, many war-related industries reduced production and employment. Attitudes towards the layoffs were mixed; Some Latinas were happy to return home to their children, others chose to turn to desk jobs that were considered more "womanly" and less labor-intensive, lastly a few wanted to stay in their previous jobs. Some Latina women felt a strong sense of patriotism while working in war related industries. Options to fight discrimination practices diminished as Truman disbanded the Office of War Information and Office of the Coordinator of the Inter-American Affairs.[15]
See also
References
- ^ Photo courtesy of Wikipedia Commons
- ^ a b c "World War II History". History. A+E Networks. 2009. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
- ^ a b Christian, Carole (1989). "Joining the American Mainstream: Texas's Mexican Americans During World War I". Southwestern Historical Quarterly 92.
- ^ a b Balderrama, Francisco (2006). Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s. University of New Mexico Press.
- ^ Rivas-Rodriguez, Maggie (2005). Mexican Americans and World War II. University of Texas Press. pp. xvii.
- ^ Rivas-Rodriguez, Maggie (2010). "World War II and Mexican American Civil Rights". ProQuest.
- ^ Photo Courtesy of Wikipedia Commons.
- ^ Ruiz, Vicki, Sánchez Korrol (2006). Latinas in the United States. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 274.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Rivas-Rodriguez, Maggie (2009). Beyond the Latino World War II hero : the social and political legacy of a generation. University of Texas Press.
- ^ Photo Courtesy of Wikipedia Commons
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Rivas-Rodriguez, Maggie, and B. V. Olguín. Latina/os and World War II: Mobility, Agency, and Ideology. Austin: U of Texas, 2014. Print.
- ^ a b Rosas, Ana Elizabeth (2011). "Breaking the Silence: Mexican Children and Women's Confrontation of Bracero Family Separation, 1942–64". Gender & History. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0424.2011.01644.x.
- ^ Rosas, Ana Elizabeth (2014). American Crossroads, Volume 40 : Abrazando el Espíritu : Bracero Families Confront the US-Mexico Border. University of California Press. pp. 23–27.
- ^ Whalen, Carmen Theresa (Spring 2002). "Sweatshops Here and There: The Garment Industry, Latinas, and Labor Migrations". International Labor and Working-Class Inc. JSTOR 27672771.
- ^ Escobedo, Elizabeth Rachel. "Civil Rights and Postwar Life." From Coveralls to Zoot Suits: The Lives of Mexican American Women on the World War II Home Front. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina, 2013. 125-47. Print.