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{{Infobox Government agency |
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|agency_name = National Aeronautics and Space Administration |
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|abbreviation = NASA |
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|logo = NASA logo.svg |
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|logo_width = 140px |
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|logo_caption = [[NASA logo|NASA insignia]]<br />Motto: For the Benefit of All<ref name="motto"/> |
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|seal = Nasaseal.svg |
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|seal_width = 135px |
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|seal_caption = NASA seal |
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|formed ={{Start date and years ago|mf=no|1958|7|29}} |
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|preceding1 = [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics|NACA]] |
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|jurisdiction = [[Federal government of the United States|United States government]] |
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|headquarters = [[Washington, D.C.]] |
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|latd=38 |latm=52 |lats=59 |latNS=N |
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|longd=77 |longm= 0 |longs=59 |longEW=W |
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|region_code=US-DC |
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|employees = 17,900<ref>http://www.employeeorientation.nasa.gov/contractors/default.htm</ref> |
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|budget = US$17.6 billion (FY 2009)<ref name="budg1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/210020main_NASA_FY09_Budget_Estimates_Summary.pdf|format=PDF|title=FY09 Budget Request Summary|publisher=NASA|date=February 1, 2008}}</ref> <br />See also [[NASA Budget]] |
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|chief1_name = [[Charles Frank Bolden, Jr.]] |
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|chief1_position = [[Administrator of NASA|Administrator]] |
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|chief2_name = [[Lori Beth Garver]] |
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|chief2_position = [[Deputy Administrator of NASA|Deputy Administrator]] |
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|website = [http://www.nasa.gov/home/index.html www.nasa.gov] |
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}} |
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The '''National Aeronautics and Space Administration''' ('''NASA''', {{pronEng|ˈnæsə}}) is an agency of the [[Federal government of the United States|United States government]], responsible for the nation's civilian [[list of space agencies|space program]]. NASA was established by the [[National Aeronautics and Space Act]] on July 29, 1958, replacing its predecessor, the [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]] (NACA). The agency became operational on October 1, 1958.<ref name="act1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/offices/ogc/about/space_act1.html|title=The National Aeronautics and Space Act|accessdate=August 29, 2007|dateformat=mdy|publisher=NASA|year=2005|author=NASA|language=}}</ref><ref name="NacaNASA"/> NASA has led U.S. efforts for space exploration ever since, resulting in the Apollo missions to the Moon, the [[Skylab]] space station, and later the [[Space Shuttle]]. Currently NASA is supporting the [[International Space Station]] and developing new [[Constellation program|Ares I and V]] launch vehicles. |
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In addition to the space program, it is also responsible for long-term civilian and military [[aerospace]] research. NASA Science is focused on better understanding Earth itself through the [[Earth Observing System]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nasascience.nasa.gov/earth-science|title=Earth - NASA Science|first=Ruth|last=Netting|date=June 30, 2009|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> advancing [[heliophysics]] through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorate's [[Heliophysics Research Program]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nasascience.nasa.gov/heliophysics|title=Heliophysics - NASA Science|first=Ruth|last=Netting|date=January 8, 2009|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> exploring bodies throughout the [[Solar System]] with advanced robotic missions such as [[New Horizons]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nasascience.nasa.gov/planetary-science|title=Planets - NASA Science|first=Ruth|last=Netting|date=January 8, 2009|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> and researching [[astrophysics]] topics, such as the [[Big Bang]], through the [[Great Observatories program|Great Observatories]] and associated programs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nasascience.nasa.gov/astrophysics|title=Astrophysics - NASA Science|first=Ruth|last=Netting|date=July 13, 2009|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> Since February 2006 NASA's self-described mission statement is to "pioneer the future in [[space exploration]], [[Science|scientific discovery]], and [[aeronautics]] research."<ref name="do1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/about/highlights/what_does_nasa_do.html|title=What Does NASA Do?|accessdate=August 29, 2007|dateformat=mdy|publisher=NASA|year=2005}}</ref> |
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The National Aeronautics and Space Administration shares data with various national and international organizations such as from the [[Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite]]. |
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== Mission statement == |
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{{cquote|To improve life here, To extend life to there, To find life beyond.<ref name='MissionStatement'>{{Cite news|first=|last=|coauthors=|authorlink=|title=NASA Mission Statement|date=|publisher=|url=http://naccenter.arc.nasa.gov/NASAMission.html|work=|pages=|accessdate=December 27, 2009|language=}}</ref> |4=NASA Mission Statement}} |
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{{cquote|NASA's mission is to pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery and aeronautics research.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/about/highlights/what_does_nasa_do.html</ref> |4=NASA Mission}} |
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{{cquote|To understand and protect our home planet, To explore the Universe and search for life, and To inspire the next generation of explorers... as only NASA can.<ref name='MissionStatement'/> |4=NASA Vision}} |
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== History == |
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=== Space race === |
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{{Main|Space Race}} |
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After the [[Soviet space program]]'s launch of the world's first human-made [[satellite]] (''[[Sputnik 1]]'') on October 4, 1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. The [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]], alarmed by the perceived threat to U.S. security and technological leadership (known as the "[[Sputnik crisis]]"), urged immediate and swift action; President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and his advisers counseled more deliberate measures. Several months of debate produced an agreement that a new federal agency was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The [[DARPA|Advanced Research Projects Agency]] (ARPA) was also created at this time. |
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=== NACA === |
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{{Main|National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics}} |
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[[File:NACA seal.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Official seal for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]] |
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From late 1957 to early 1958, the [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]] (NACA) began studying what a new non-military space agency would entail, as well as what its role might be, and assigned several committees to review the concept.<ref name="NacaNASA">{{Cite book|url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/ch2.htm#32|title=FROM NACA TO NASA|first=Roger E.|last=Bilstein|year=1996|editor-first=William R.|editor-last=Lucas|work=Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles|pages=32–33|publisher=NASA|accessdate=May 27, 2009}}</ref> On January 12, 1958, NACA organized a "Special Committee on Space Technology", headed by [[Guyford Stever]].<ref name="NacaNASA" /> Stever's committee included consultation from the [[ABMA]]'s large booster program, referred to as the "Working Group on Vehicular Program," headed by [[Wernher von Braun]],<ref name="NacaNASA" /> who became a [[Naturalization|naturalized citizen]] of the United States after [[World War II]]. |
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On January 14, 1958, NACA Director [[Hugh Dryden]] published "A National Research Program for Space Technology" stating:<ref name="Erickson">{{Cite book|title=Into the Unknown Together - The DOD, NASA, and Early Spaceflight|last=Erickson|first=Mark|isbn=1-58566-140-6|url=http://aupress.au.af.mil/Books/Erickson/erickson.pdf }}</ref> {{cquote|It is of great urgency and importance to our country both from consideration of our prestige as a nation as well as military necessity that this challenge [''[[Sputnik]]''] be met by an energetic program of research and development for the conquest of space... It is accordingly proposed that the scientific research be the responsibility of a national civilian agency... NACA is capable, by rapid extension and expansion of its effort, of providing leadership in [[space technology]].<ref name="Erickson"/>}} |
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[[File:Explorer1.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Image of the [[Explorer 1]] satellite.]] |
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Launched at 10:48 pm EST on January 31, 1958, [[Explorer 1]], officially Satellite 1958 Alpha, became the U.S.'s first artificial satellite of [[Earth]].<ref name="ExplorerInformation">{{Cite web|url=http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/expinfo.html|title=Explorer-I and Jupiter-C|publisher=NASA|first=Steve|last=Garber|date=October 10, 2007|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> The Explorer 1 payload consisted of the [[cosmic ray|Iowa Cosmic Ray Instrument]] without a tape data recorder which was not modified in time to make it onto the satellite. |
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On March 5, [[President's Science Advisory Committee|PSAC]] Chairman [[James Killian]] wrote a memorandum to President Eisenhower, entitled "Organization for Civil Space Programs", encouraging the creation of a civil space program based upon a "strengthened and redesignated" NACA which could expand its research program "with a minimum of delay."<ref name="Erickson" /> In late March, a NACA report entitled "Suggestions for a Space Program" included recommendations for subsequently developing a hydrogen fluorine fueled [[rocket]] of {{Convert|4450000|N|lb-f|sp=us}} thrust designed with second and third stages.<ref name="NacaNASA" /> |
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In April 1958, President Eisenhower delivered to the U.S. Congress a formal executive address favoring the notion of a national civilian space agency and submitted an Administrative bill to create a "National Aeronautical and Space Agency."<ref name="NacaNASA" /> NACA's former role of research alone would change to include large-scale development, management, and operations.<ref name="NacaNASA" /> The U.S. Congress passed the bill, somewhat reworded, as the [[National Aeronautics and Space Act]] of 1958, on July 16.<ref name="NacaNASA" /> Only two days later von Braun's Working Group submitted a preliminary report severely criticizing the duplication of efforts and lack of coordination among various organizations assigned to the United States' space programs.<ref name="NacaNASA" /> Stever's Committee on Space Technology concurred with the criticisms of the von Braun Group (a final draft was published several months later, in October).<ref name="NacaNASA" /> |
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=== NASA === |
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[[File:JFK Tour of KSC - GPN-2000-000605.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[John F. Kennedy|President Kennedy]], [[Lyndon B. Johnson|Vice President Johnson]] and other officials at the [[Kennedy Space Center|Launch Operations Center]]'s LC-34 blockhouse during a 1962 tour]] |
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On July 29, 1958, President Eisenhower signed the [[National Aeronautics and Space Act]], establishing the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. When it began operations on October 1, 1958, NASA absorbed the 46-year-old NACA intact; its 8,000 employees, an annual budget of US$100 million, three major research laboratories ([[Langley Aeronautical Laboratory]], [[Ames Aeronautical Laboratory]], and [[Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory]]) and two small test facilities.<ref name="Glennan">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Biographies/glennan.html|title=T. KEITH GLENNAN|publisher=NASA|date=August 4, 2006|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> |
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Elements of the [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency]], of which von Braun's team was a part, and the [[United States Naval Research Laboratory|Naval Research Laboratory]] were incorporated into NASA. A significant contributor to NASA's entry into the [[Space Race]] with the Soviet Union was the technology from the [[V-2 rocket|German rocket program]] (led by von Braun) which in turn incorporated the technology of [[Robert Goddard]]'s earlier works.<ref name="recoll">{{Cite web|url=http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/vonbraun/recollect-childhood.html|first=Werner|last=von Braun|year=1963|title=Recollections of Childhood: Early Experiences in Rocketry as Told by Werner Von Braun 1963|work=MSFC History Office|publisher=NASA Marshall Space Flight Center|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> Earlier research efforts within the [[U.S. Air Force]]<ref name="Glennan" /> and many of ARPA's early space programs were also transferred to NASA.<ref name="DARPA">{{Cite paper|url=http://www.arpa.mil/Docs/Intro_-_Van_Atta_200807180920581.pdf|format=PDF|title=50 years of Bridging the Gap|first=Richard|last=Van Atta|date=April 10, 2008|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> In December 1958, NASA gained control of the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]], a contractor facility operated by the [[California Institute of Technology]].<ref name="Glennan" /> |
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[[File:Mercury 3.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|May 5, 1961 launch of Redstone rocket and NASA's Mercury ''[[Mercury-Redstone 3|Freedom 7]]'' with [[Alan Shepard]] on the United States' first manned [[sub-orbital spaceflight]].]] |
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===List of NASA programs=== |
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{{Main|List of NASA missions}} |
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==== Manned programs ==== |
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===== Project Mercury ===== |
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{{Main|Project Mercury}} |
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Conducted under the pressure of the competition between the U.S. and the Soviet Union that existed during the [[Cold War]], [[Project Mercury]] was initiated in 1958 and started NASA down the path of human space exploration with missions designed to discover simply if man could survive in [[outer space|space]]. Representatives from the U.S. Army, Navy, and Air Force were selected to provide assistance to NASA. Selections were facilitated through coordination with existing U.S. defense research, contracting, and military test pilot programs. On May 5, 1961, astronaut [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American in space when he piloted [[Mercury-Redstone 3|''Freedom 7'']] on a 15-minute suborbital flight.<ref name="ShepardsRide">{{Cite book|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4201/toc.htm|title=This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury|format=url|chapter=11-4 Shepard's Ride|chapterurl=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4201/ch11-4.htm|publisher=NASA|work=Published as NASA Special Publication-4201 in the NASA History Series|origyear=1989|first1=Loyd S.|last1=Swenson Jr.|first2=James M.|last2=Grimwood|first3=Charles C.|last3=Alexander|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Woods|editor2-first=Chris|editor2-last=Gamble|accessdate=July 14, 2009}}</ref> [[John Glenn]] became the first American to orbit the Earth on February 20, 1962 during the five and a quarter-hour flight of [[Mercury-Atlas 6|''Friendship 7'']].<ref name="AnAmericaninOrbit">{{Cite book|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4201/toc.htm|title=This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury|format=url|chapter=13-4 An American in Orbit|chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4201/ch13-4.htm|publisher=NASA|work=Published as NASA Special Publication-4201 in the NASA History Series|origyear=1989|first1=Loyd S.|last1=Swenson Jr.|first2=James M.|last2=Grimwood|first3=Charles C.|last3=Alexander|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Woods|editor2-first=Chris|editor2-last=Gamble|accessdate=July 14, 2009}}</ref> |
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===== Project Gemini ===== |
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[[File:Gemini 1.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Launch of Gemini 1]] |
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{{Main|Project Gemini}} |
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[[Project Gemini]] was launched to conduct experiments and work out issues relating to a possible moon mission. The first Gemini flight with astronauts on board, [[Gemini 3]], was flown by [[Gus Grissom]] and [[John Young (astronaut)|John Young]] on March 23, 1965.<ref name="TheLastHurdle">{{Cite book|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/toc.htm|title=On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini|format=url|chapter=10-1 The Last Hurdle|chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/ch10-1.htm|publisher=NASA|work=Published as NASA Special Publication-4203 in the NASA History Series|origyear=1977|first=James M.|last=Grimwood|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Woods|editor2-first=Chris|editor2-last=Gamble|accessdate=July 14, 2009}}</ref> Nine other missions followed, showing that long-duration human space flight was possible, proving that rendezvous and docking with another vehicle in space was possible, and gathering medical data on the effects of weightlessness on human beings.<ref name="PlansforGemini3">{{Cite book|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/toc.htm|title=On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini|format=url|chapter=12-5 Two Weeks in a Spacecraft|chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/ch12-5.htm|publisher=NASA|work=Published as NASA Special Publication-4203 in the NASA History Series|origyear=1977|first=James M.|last=Grimwood|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Woods|editor2-first=Chris|editor2-last=Gamble|accessdate=July 14, 2009}}</ref><ref name="AnAlternativeTarget">{{Cite book|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/toc.htm|title=On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini|format=url|chapter=13-3 An Alternative Target|chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/ch13-3.htm|publisher=NASA|work=Published as NASA Special Publication-4203 in the NASA History Series|origyear=1977|first=James M.|last=Grimwood|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Woods|editor2-first=Chris|editor2-last=Gamble|accessdate=July 14, 2009}}</ref> Gemini missions included the first American [[Extra-vehicular activity|spacewalks]], and new [[orbital maneuver]]s including [[Space rendezvous|rendezvous and docking]]. |
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[[File:Apollo 11 Launch - GPN-2000-000630.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|The Apollo 11 Saturn V space vehicle lifts off.]] |
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===== Apollo program ===== |
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{{Main|Apollo program}} |
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The '''Apollo program''' landed the first [[List of Apollo astronauts|humans]] on Earth's moon. ''[[Apollo 11]]'' landed on the moon on July 20, 1969 with astronauts [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]], while [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] orbited above. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed [[astronaut]]s on the [[Moon]], the last in December 1972. In these six Apollo spaceflights twelve men walked on the Moon. These missions returned a wealth of scientific data and {{convert|381.7|kg|lb}} of lunar samples. Experiments included [[soil mechanics]], [[meteoroid]]s, [[seismology|seismic]], [[Heat transfer|heat flow]], [[Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment|lunar ranging]], [[magnetic field]]s, and solar wind experiments.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chaikin|first=Andrew|title=A Man on the Moon|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York|year=1998|isbn=0140272011 }}</ref> |
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[[File:Buzz salutes the U.S. Flag.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Apollo 11 pilot Buzz Aldrin salutes US flag.]] |
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Apollo set major [[List of space exploration milestones, 1957-1969|milestones]] in human spaceflight. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond [[low Earth orbit]], and landing humans on another [[celestial body]].<ref>[http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/missions.htm 30th Anniversary of Apollo 11, Manned Apollo Missions]. NASA, 1999.</ref> [[Apollo 8]] was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while [[Apollo 17]] marked the last moonwalk and the last manned mission beyond [[low Earth orbit]]. The program spurred advances in many areas of technology peripheral to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including [[avionics]], [[telecommunications]], and [[computers]]. Apollo sparked interest in many fields of [[engineering]] and left many physical facilities and machines developed for the program as landmarks. Many objects and artifacts from the program are on display at various locations throughout the world, notably at the [[National Air and Space Museum|Smithsonian's Air and Space Museums]]. |
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[[File:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|NASA's Skylab Space Station]] |
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The [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] (ASTP) was the first joint flight of the U.S. and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[space exploration|space programs]]. The mission took place in July 1975. For the United States of America, it was the last [[Project Apollo|Apollo]] flight, as well as the last manned space launch until the flight of the first [[Space Shuttle]] in April 1981.<ref name="ASTP">{{Cite web|url=http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/history/astp/astp.html|title=The Apollo Soyuz Test Project|first=Kay|last=Grinter|date=April 23, 2003|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> |
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===== Skylab ===== |
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{{Main|Skylab}} |
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Skylab was the first [[space station]] the United States launched into orbit.<ref name="skylabFirst">{{Cite book|url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19770020211_1977020211.pdf|title=Skylab Our First Space Station - NASA report|format=PDF|id=NASA-SP-400|year=1977|publisher=NASA|editor-first=Leland F.|editor-last=Belew|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> The {{convert|100|ST|MT}} station was in Earth orbit from 1973 to 1979, and was visited by crews three times, in 1973 and 1974.<ref name="skylabFirst"/> It included a laboratory for studying the effects of [[microgravity environment|microgravity]], and a [[Apollo Telescope Mount|solar observatory]].<ref name="skylabFirst"/> A Space Shuttle was planned to dock with and elevate Skylab to a higher safe altitude, but Skylab reentered the atmosphere and was destroyed in 1979, before the first shuttle could be launched.<ref name="skylabchronology">{{Cite book|url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4011/cover.htm|title=Skylab:A Chronology|first1=Roland W.|last1=Newkirk|first2=Ivan D.|last2=Ertel|first3=Courtney G.|last3=Brooks|publisher=NASA|id=NASA-SP-4011|year=1977|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> |
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===== Space shuttle ===== |
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[[File:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[Space Shuttle Columbia]], April 12, 1981]] |
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{{Main|Space Shuttle}} |
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The [[Space Shuttle]] became the major focus of NASA in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Planned as a frequently launchable and mostly reusable vehicle, four space shuttles were built by 1985. The first to launch, [[Space Shuttle Columbia|''Columbia'']], did so on April 12, 1981.<ref name="Odyssey">{{Cite book|first=Stephen|last=Lyle|editor-last=Bernier|editor-first=Serge|title=Space Odyssey: The First Forty Years of Space Exploration|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2002|isbn=0-521-81356-5}}</ref> |
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[[File:NASA Worm logo.svg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|The NASA "worm" logo used from 1975 to 1992.]] |
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In 1995 Russian-American interaction resumed with the [[Shuttle-Mir Program|Shuttle-Mir]] missions. Once more an American vehicle docked with a Russian craft, this time a full-fledged space station. This cooperation continues to today, with Russia and America the two biggest partners in the largest space station ever built: the [[International Space Station]] (ISS). The strength of their cooperation on this project was even more evident when NASA began relying on Russian launch vehicles to service the ISS during the two year grounding of the shuttle fleet following the 2003 [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' disaster]]. |
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The Shuttle fleet lost two spacecraft and fourteen astronauts in two disasters: ''Challenger'' in 1986, and ''Columbia'' in 2003.<ref name="delays1">{{Cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/space/January 7, 2008-nasawoes_N.htm|title=Shuttle delays endanger space station|accessdate=July 15, 2009|publisher=[[USA Today]]|year=2007|first=Traci|last=Watson}}</ref> While the 1986 loss was mitigated by building the [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'']] from replacement parts, NASA has no plans to build another shuttle to replace the [[STS-107|second loss]], and instead may be transitioning to a new spacecraft called [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]].<ref name="delays1"/> |
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NASA's shuttle program had made 120 successful launches as of September 2009. |
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[[File:ISS ULF3 STS-129.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|The [[International Space Station]]]] |
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===== International space station ===== |
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{{Main|International Space Station}} |
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The '''International Space Station''' ('''ISS''') is an internationally developed research facility [[Assembly of the International Space Station|currently being assembled]] in [[Low Earth Orbit]]. On-orbit construction of the station began in 1998 and is scheduled to be completed by 2011, with operations continuing until at least 2015.<ref name="Popular Mechanics">{{Cite web|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/air_space/4275571.html|title=The Uncertain Future of the International Space Station: Analysis|author=Rand Simberg|date=July 29, 2008|accessdate=March 6, 2009|publisher=[[Popular Mechanics]]}}</ref> The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye, and, {{As of|2009|lc=yes}}, is the largest artificial satellite in [[Earth]] orbit, with a mass larger than that of any previous [[space station]]. |
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The ISS is operated as a joint project between the American NASA, the [[Russian Federal Space Agency]] (RKA), the [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] (JAXA), the [[Canadian Space Agency]] (CSA), and the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA). Ownership and utilisation of the space station is set out via several intergovernmental treaties and agreements, with the [[Russian Federation]] retaining full ownership of [[Russian Orbital Segment|its own modules]], and the rest of the station being allocated between the other international partners. The [[International Space Station]] relies on the Shuttle fleet for all major construction shipments. |
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The cost of the station project has been estimated by ESA as €100 billion over a course of 30 years, although cost estimates vary between 35 billion dollars and 160 billion dollars, making the ISS the [[List of world's most expensive single objects|most expensive object ever constructed]]. |
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==== Unmanned programs ==== |
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{{Main|Robotic spacecraft}} |
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===== Mariner program ===== |
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[[File:Mariner 67.gif|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Picture of Mariner 6]] |
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{{Main|Mariner program}} |
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The '''Mariner program''' was a program conducted by ''NASA'' that launched a series of [[Robotic spacecraft|robotic]] [[Space probe|interplanetary probes]] designed to investigate [[Mars]], [[Venus]] and [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]. The program included a number of firsts, including the first planetary flyby, the first pictures from another planet, the first planetary [[orbiter]], and the first [[gravitational slingshot|gravity assist]] maneuver. |
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Of the ten vehicles in the Mariner series, seven were successful and three were lost. The planned [[Mariner 11]] and [[Mariner 12]] vehicles evolved into [[Voyager 1]] and [[Voyager 2]] of the [[Voyager program]], while the [[Viking 1]] and [[Viking 2]] Mars orbiters were enlarged versions of the [[Mariner 9]] spacecraft. Other Mariner-based spacecraft, launched since Voyager, included the [[Magellan spacecraft|Magellan]] probe to Venus, and the [[Galileo spacecraft|Galileo]] probe to [[Jupiter]]. A second-generation Mariner spacecraft, called the [[Mariner Mark II]] series, eventually evolved into the [[Cassini-Huygens]] probe, now in orbit around [[Saturn]]. |
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All Mariner spacecraft were based on a hexagonal or octagonal "bus", which housed all of the electronics, and to which all components were attached, such as antennae, cameras, propulsion, and power sources. All probes except [[Mariner 1]], [[Mariner 2]] and [[Mariner 5]] had TV cameras. The first five Mariners were launched on [[Atlas-Agena]] [[rocket]]s, while the last five used the [[Atlas-Centaur]]. All Mariner-based probes after [[Mariner 10]] used the [[Titan III|Titan IIIE]], [[Titan IV]] unmanned rockets or the [[Space Shuttle]] with a solid-fueled [[Inertial Upper Stage]] and multiple planetary flybys. |
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[[File:Pioneer Venus orbiter.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Artist's conception of the [[Pioneer Venus Orbiter]]]] |
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===== Pioneer program ===== |
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{{Main|Pioneer program}} |
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The '''Pioneer program''' is a series of ''NASA'' [[unmanned space missions]] that was designed for planetary exploration. There were a number of such missions in the program, but the most notable were [[Pioneer 10]] and [[Pioneer 11]], which explored the outer planets and left the [[solar system]]. Both carry a golden [[Pioneer plaque|plaque]], depicting a man and a woman and information about the origin and the creators of the probes, should any [[extraterrestrial life|extraterrestrials]] find them someday. |
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Additionally, the '''Pioneer mission''' to [[Venus]] consisted of two components, launched separately. Pioneer Venus 1 or ''Pioneer Venus Orbiter'' was launched in 1978 and studied the planet for more than a decade after orbital insertion in 1978. Pioneer Venus 2 or ''Pioneer Venus Multiprobe'' sent four small probes into the Venusian atmosphere. |
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===== Voyager program ===== |
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[[File:Titan 3E with Voyager 1.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[Voyager 1]] Launch, September 5, 1977]] |
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{{Main|Voyager program}} |
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The '''Voyager program''' is a series of NASA [[unmanned space missions]] that consists of a pair of unmanned scientific [[Space probe|probe]]s, ''[[Voyager 1]]'' and ''[[Voyager 2]]''. They were launched in 1977 to take advantage of a favorable planetary alignment of the late 1970s. Although they were officially designated to study just [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]], the two probes were able to continue their mission into the [[outer solar system]]. Both probes have achieved escape velocity from the solar system and will never return. Both missions have gathered large amounts of data about the [[gas giant]]s of the [[solar system]], of which little was previously known. |
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'''Voyager 1''' is currently the farthest human-made object from [[Earth]] at about 110.94 [[astronomical unit|AU]] (16.596 [[1000000000 (number)|billion]] km, or 10.312 billion miles), traveling away from both the Earth and the [[Sun]] at a speed of 17 km/s, which corresponds to a greater [[specific orbital energy]] than any other probe.<ref>[http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1997/PatricePean.shtml Speed of the Voyager Space Probes<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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[[File:Sagan Viking.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Full-scale model of the Viking Lander]] |
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===== Viking program ===== |
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{{Main|Viking program}} |
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The '''Viking program''' consisted of a pair of space probes sent to [[Mars]], [[Viking 1]] and [[Viking 2]]. Each vehicle was composed of two main parts, an orbiter designed to [[photograph]] the surface of Mars from [[orbit]], and a lander designed to study the planet from the surface. The orbiters also served as communication relays for the landers once they touched down. Viking 1 was [[launch]]ed on August 20, 1975, and the second craft, Viking 2, was launched on September 9, 1975, both riding atop [[Titan III|Titan III-E]] rockets with [[Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]] upper stages. By discovering many geological forms that are typically formed from large amounts of water, the Viking program caused a revolution in scientific ideas about water on Mars. |
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The primary objectives of the Viking orbiters were to transport the landers to Mars, perform reconnaissance to locate and certify landing sites, act as a communications relays for the landers, and to perform their own scientific investigations. The orbiter, based on the earlier [[Mariner 9]] spacecraft, was an [[octagon]] approximately 2.5 m across. The total launch mass was 2328 kg, of which 1445 kg were propellant and attitude control gas. |
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===== Hubble Space Telescope ===== |
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[[File:HST-SM4.jpeg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|The [[Hubble Space Telescope]]]] |
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{{Main|Hubble Space Telescope}} |
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The '''Hubble Space Telescope''' ('''HST''') is a [[Space observatory|space telescope]] that was carried into [[Low Earth orbit|orbit]] by the [[Space Shuttle|space shuttle]] in April 1990. It is named after the American [[astronomer]] [[Edwin Hubble]]. Although not the first space telescope, Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile, and is well-known as both a vital research tool and a public relations boon for [[astronomy]]. The HST is a collaboration between [[NASA]] and the [[European Space Agency]], and is one of NASA's [[Great Observatories program|Great Observatories]], along with the [[Compton Gamma Ray Observatory]], the [[Chandra X-ray Observatory]], and the [[Spitzer Space Telescope]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/postsecondary/features/F_NASA_Great_Observatories_PS.html|title=NASA's Great Observatories|publisher=NASA|accessdate=April 26, 2008}}</ref> The HST's success has paved the way for greater collaboration between the agencies. |
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The HST was created with a relatively small budget of $2 billion<ref name="Dunar">{{Cite book|last=Dunar|first=A. J.|coauthors=S. P. Waring|year=1999|title=Power To Explore—History of Marshall Space Flight Center 1960–1990|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|isbn=0-16-058992-4}} Chapter 12, {{PDFlink|[http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/book/chpttwelve.pdf The Hubble Space Telescope]|260 KB}}</ref> and has continued operation since 1990, delighting both scientists and the public. Some of its images, such as the groundbreaking [[Hubble Deep Field]], have become famous. |
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[[File:Magellan Preparations.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|The Magellan Probe prepared for launch]] |
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===== Magellan probe ===== |
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{{Main|Magellan probe}} |
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The '''Magellan spacecraft''' was a [[space probe]] sent to the planet [[Venus]], the first unmanned interplanetary spacecraft to be launched by [[NASA]] since its successful [[Pioneer Venus|Pioneer Orbiter]], also to Venus, in 1978. It was also the first of three deep-space probes to be launched on the [[Space Shuttle]], and the first spacecraft to employ [[aerobraking]] techniques to lower its orbit. |
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Magellan created the first (and currently the best) high resolution mapping of the planet's surface features. Prior Venus missions had created low resolution radar globes of general, continent-sized formations. Magellan, performed detailed imaging and analysis of craters, hills, ridges, and other geologic formations, to a degree comparable to the visible-light photographic mapping of other planets. |
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===== Galileo probe ===== |
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[[File:Galileo Preparations - GPN-2000-000672.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|The [[Galileo probe]]]] |
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{{Main|Galileo Probe}} |
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''Galileo'' was an [[unmanned spacecraft]] sent by NASA to study the [[planet]] [[Jupiter]] and its [[natural satellite|moon]]s. It was launched on October 18, 1989 by the [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'']] on the [[STS-34]] mission. It arrived at Jupiter on December 7, 1995, a little more than six years later, via [[Gravity assist|gravitational assist]] flybys of [[Venus]] and [[Earth]]. |
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Despite antenna problems, ''Galileo'' conducted the first [[asteroid]] flyby, discovered the first [[asteroid moon]], was the first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter, and launched the first probe into Jupiter's [[celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]]. Galileo's prime mission was a two-year study of the Jovian system. The spacecraft traveled around Jupiter in elongated [[ellipse]]s, each orbit lasting about two months. The differing distances from Jupiter afforded by these orbits allowed ''Galileo'' to sample different parts of the planet's extensive [[magnetosphere]]. The orbits were designed for close up flybys of Jupiter's largest moons. Once Galileo's prime mission was concluded, an extended mission followed starting on December 7, 1997; the spacecraft made a number of daring close flybys of Jupiter's moons [[Europa (moon)|Europa]] and [[Io (moon)|Io]]. The closest approach was 180 km (112 mi) on October 15, 2001. |
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On September 21, 2003, after 14 years in space and 8 years of service in the [[Jovian system]], ''Galileo''′s mission was terminated by sending the orbiter into Jupiter's atmosphere at a speed of nearly 50 kilometers per second to avoid any chance of it contaminating local moons with [[bacteria]] from [[Earth]]. Of particular concern was the [[ice]]-crusted moon [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], which, thanks to ''Galileo'', scientists now suspect harbors a salt water [[ocean]] beneath its surface. |
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[[File:Mars global surveyor.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Artist's conception of the Mars Global Surveyor]] |
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===== Mars Global Surveyor ===== |
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{{Main|Mars Global Surveyor}} |
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The '''''Mars Global Surveyor''''' ('''''MGS''''') was a US [[spacecraft]] developed by [[NASA]]'s [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] and launched November 1996. It began the United States's return to [[Mars]] after a 10-year absence. It completed its primary mission in January 2001 and was in its third extended mission phase when, on 2 November 2006, the spacecraft failed to respond to messages and commands. In January 2007 NASA officially ended the mission. |
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The ''Surveyor'' spacecraft used a series of high-resolution cameras to explore the surface of Mars during its mission, returning more than 240,000 images spanning portions of 4.8 Martian years, from September 1997 and November 2006.<ref>http://www.msss.com</ref> The surveyor's cameras utilized 3 instruments: a narrow angle camera that took (black-and-white) high resolution images (usually 1.5 to 12 m per pixel) red and blue wide angle pictures for context (240 m per pixel) and daily global imaging (7.5 km per pixel). <ref>http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc20004/pdf/1189.pdf</ref> |
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[[File:Sojourner on Mars PIA01122.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|The Soujourner rover on Mars]] |
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===== Mars Pathfinder ===== |
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{{Main|Mars Pathfinder}} |
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The '''Mars Pathfinder''' ('''MESUR Pathfinder'''<ref>{{ cite news|publisher=Washington Post|title=One Way or Another, Space Agency Will Hitch a Ride to Mars|date=November 13, 1993}}</ref>), later renamed the '''Carl Sagan Memorial Station''', was launched on December 4, 1996, just a month after the ''[[Mars Global Surveyor]]'' was launched. Onboard the [[lander (spacecraft)|lander]] was a small [[rover (space exploration)|rover]] called '''''Sojourner''''' that would go on to execute many experiments on the Martian surface. It was the second project from NASA's [[Discovery Program]], which promotes the use of low-cost spacecraft and frequent launches under the motto "cheaper, faster and better" promoted by the then administrator, [[Daniel Goldin]]. The mission was directed by the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] (JPL), a division of the ''[[California Institute of Technology]]'', responsible for NASA's [[Exploration of Mars|Mars Exploration Program]]. |
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This mission, besides being the first of a series of missions to [[Mars]] that included rovers (robotic exploration vehicles), was the most important since the ''[[Viking program|Vikings]]'' landed on the red planet in 1976, and also was the first successful mission to send a rover to a [[planet]]. In addition to scientific objectives, the Mars Pathfinder mission was also a "proof-of-concept" for various technologies, such as [[airbag]]-mediated touchdown and automated obstacle avoidance, both later exploited by the [[Mars Exploration Rover]]s. The Mars Pathfinder was also remarkable for its extremely low price relative to other unmanned space missions to Mars. |
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[[File:NASA Mars Rover.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Artist's conception of MER on Mars]] |
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===== Mars Exploration Rovers ===== |
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{{Main|Mars Exploration Rovers}} |
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[[NASA]]'s '''Mars Exploration Rover Mission''' ('''MER'''), is an ongoing [[robotic space mission]] involving two rovers, '''Spirit and Opportunity''', exploring the planet [[Mars]]. The mission is managed for [[NASA]] by the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]], which designed, built and is operating the rovers. |
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The mission began in 2003 with the sending of the two [[rover (space exploration)|rover]]s — MER-A'' [[Spirit rover|Spirit]]'' and MER-B ''[[Opportunity rover|Opportunity]]'' — to explore the Martian surface and [[geology]]. The mission's scientific objective is to search for and characterize a wide range of [[rock (geology)|rocks]] and [[soil]]s that hold clues to past water activity on Mars. The mission is part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program which includes three previous successful landers: the two [[Viking program]] landers in 1976 and [[Mars Pathfinder]] probe in 1997.<ref name="Mission overview">{{cite web |url=http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/overview | title=Mars Exploration Rover Mission Overview | publisher=NASA}}</ref> |
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The total cost of building, launching, landing and operating the rovers on the surface for the initial 90-[[Martian day#Sols|Martian-day (sol)]] primary mission was US$820 million.<ref name="MissionExtensions">{{cite web |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21327647/ |title=NASA extends Mars rovers' mission |publisher=MSNBC |date=2007-10-16 |accessdate=2009-04-05}}</ref> Since the rovers have continued to function far beyond their initial 90 sol primary mission (to date both rovers have been functioning on Mars's surface for nearly 7 years), they have each received multiple mission extensions. |
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In recognition of the vast amount of [[Scientific information from the Mars Exploration Rover mission|scientific information]] amassed by both rovers, two [[asteroid]]s have been named in their honor: [[37452 Spirit]] and [[39382 Opportunity]]. |
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== NASA's future == |
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[[File:Size Comparison.png|thumb|right|300px|Left to Right: [[Saturn V]], which last carried men to the Moon, the [[Space Shuttle]], the planned [[Ares I]], proposed [[Ares IV]] and planned [[Ares V]] [[launch vehicle]]s.]] |
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During much of the 1990s, NASA was faced with shrinking annual budgets due to Congressional belt-tightening. In response, NASA's ninth administrator, [[Daniel Goldin]], pioneered the "faster, better, cheaper" approach that enabled NASA to cut costs while still delivering a wide variety of aerospace programs ([[Discovery Program]]). That method was criticized and re-evaluated following the twin losses of [[Mars Climate Orbiter]] and [[Mars Polar Lander]] in 1999. |
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It is the current [[U.S. National Space Policy|space policy of the United States]] that NASA, "execute a sustained and affordable human and robotic program of space exploration and develop, acquire, and use civil space systems to advance fundamental scientific knowledge of our Earth system, solar system, and universe."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ostp.gov/galleries/default-file/Unclassified%20National%20Space%20Policy%20--%20FINAL.pdf|title=U.S. National Space Policy - Civil Space Guidelines|publisher=[[Office of Science and Technology Policy]]|date=October 6, 2006|pages=5|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> NASA's ongoing investigations include in-depth surveys of [[Mars]] and [[Saturn]] and studies of the [[Earth]] and the [[Sun]]. Other NASA spacecraft are presently en route to [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] and [[Pluto]]. With missions to [[Jupiter]] in planning stages, NASA's itinerary covers over half the solar system. |
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An improved and larger planetary [[rover (space exploration)|rover]], [[Mars Science Laboratory]], is under construction and slated to launch in 2011, after a slight delay caused by hardware challenges, which has bumped it back from the October 2009 scheduled launch.<ref name="MMP">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mars/news/msl-20081204.html|title=Mars Mission Page for Mars Science Laboratory|publisher=NASA|first=Guy|last=Webster|date=December 4, 2008|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> The [[New Horizons]] mission to Pluto was launched in 2006 and will fly by [[Pluto]] in 2015. The probe received a [[gravity assist]] from [[Jupiter]] in February 2007, examining some of Jupiter's inner moons and testing on-board instruments during the fly-by. On the horizon of NASA's plans is the [[MAVEN (spacecraft)|MAVEN spacecraft]] as part of the [[Mars Scout Program]] to study the [[atmosphere of Mars]].<ref name="MAVEN">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mars/news/maven_20080915.html|title=NASA Selects 'MAVEN' Mission to Study Mars Atmosphere|publisher=NASA|first=Jim|last=Wilson|date=September 15, 2008|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> |
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[[File:Orion briefing model.jpg|thumb|left|Orion contractor selected August 31, 2006, at NASA Headquarters.]] |
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=== Vision for space exploration === |
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{{Main|Vision for Space Exploration}} |
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On January 14, 2004, ten days after the landing of the Mars Exploration Rover ''[[Spirit rover|Spirit]]'', US [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]] announced a new plan for NASA's future, dubbed the [[Vision for Space Exploration]].<ref name="NASAaddress">{{Cite press|url=http://history.nasa.gov/Bush%20SEP.htm|title=President Bush Announces New Vision for Space Exploration Program|accessdate=July 16, 2009|publisher=[[White House Press Secretary|Office of the Press Secretary]]|date=January 14, 2004}}</ref> According to this plan, [[Human|mankind]] will return to the [[Moon]] by 2018, and set up outposts as a testbed and potential resource for future missions. The [[Space Shuttle]] will be retired in 2010 and [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] may replace it by 2015, capable of both docking with the [[International Space Station]] (ISS) and leaving the Earth's orbit. The future of the ISS is somewhat uncertain—construction will be completed, but beyond that is less clear. Although the plan initially met with skepticism from Congress, in late 2004 Congress agreed to provide start-up funds for the first year's worth of the new space vision.<ref name="vision">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/missions/solarsystem/explore_main_old.html|title=NASA's Future: The Vision for Space Exploration|first=Jim|last=Wilson|date=November 22, 2007|accessdate=July 16, 2009}}</ref> |
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Hoping to spur innovation from the private sector, NASA established a series of [[Centennial Challenges]], technology prizes for non-government teams, in 2004. The Challenges include tasks that will be useful for implementing the Vision for Space Exploration, such as building more efficient astronaut gloves.<ref name="challenges">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/offices/ipp/innovation_incubator/centennial_challenges/index.html|title=NASA-Centennial Challenges|date=June 30, 2009|first=Tricia|last=Talbert|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> In February 2010, NASA announced that it would be awarding $50 million in contracts to commercial spaceflight companies including Blue Origin, Boeing, Paragon Space Development Corporation, Sierra Nevada Corporation and United Launch Alliance to design and develop viable reusable launch vehicles.<ref> {{Cite web|url=http://www.computerworlduk.com/management/government-law/public-sector/news/index.cfm?newsid=18625|title=NASA brings in commercial spaceflight companies|publisher=Computerworld UK|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref> |
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=== Mission statement === |
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[[File:NASA 50th Logo RGB Hi.jpg|thumb|right|NASA's 50th Anniversary Logo]] |
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From 2002, NASA’s mission statement, used in budget and planning documents, read: “To understand and protect our home planet; to explore the universe and search for life; to inspire the next generation of explorers ... as only NASA can.” In early February 2006, the statement was altered, with the phrase “to understand and protect our home planet” deleted.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Andrew C.|last=Revkin|title=NASA’s Goals Delete Mention of Home Planet|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/22/science/22nasa.html|publisher=[[The New York Times]]|date=July 22, 2006|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> Some outside observers believe the change was intended to preserve the civilian nature of the agency, while others suspected it was related to criticism of government policy on [[global warming]] by NASA scientists like [[James E. Hansen]]. NASA officials have denied any connection to the latter, pointing to new priorities for space exploration. NASA's motto is "For the benefit of all".<ref name="motto">{{Cite web|url=http://www.lightmillennium.org/2004_newyear/gokoglu_nasa_stands_forall.html|title=NASA stands "for the benefit of all." – Interview with NASA's Dr. Süleyman Gokoglu|accessdate=September 29, 2054|dateformat=mdy|publisher=The Light Millennium|year=2007|author=Lale Tayla and Figen Bingul }}</ref> |
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The chair and ranking member of the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] [[United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs|Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs]] wrote NASA Administrator Griffin on July 31, 2006 expressing concerns about the change.<ref>{{Cite press|url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=20543|title=Senators Collins and Lieberman Raise Concerns about Changes to NASA Mission Statement|author=U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs|date=August 4, 2006|publisher=[[Spaceref.com]]|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> NASA also canceled or delayed a number of earth science missions in 2006.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Beth|last=Daley|title=NASA shelves climate satellites|url=http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2006/06/09/nasa_shelves_climate_satellites/|publisher=[[Boston Globe]]|date=June 9, 2006|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> |
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=== Moon base === |
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On December 4, 2006, NASA announced it was planning to build a [[Lunar outpost (NASA)|permanent moon base]].<ref name="moon2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/164021main_lunar_architecture.pdf|title=GLOBAL EXPLORATION STRATEGY AND LUNAR ARCHITECTURE|author=NASA Office of Public Affairs|publisher=NASA|date=December 4, 2006|format=PDF|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> NASA Associate Administrator Scott Horowitz said the goal was to start building the moonbase by 2020, and by 2024, have a fully functional base that would allow for crew rotations and [[in-situ resource utilization]]. Additionally, NASA plans to collaborate and partner with other nations for this project. As of February 1, 2010, however, President Obama has scrapped the possibility of a moon base through his budget. He believes that NASA should be more focused on deep space missions.<ref>http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article7011322.ece</ref> |
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=== Human exploration of Mars === |
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{{Main|Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee}} |
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On September 28, 2007 [[Michael D. Griffin]], who was at the time [[Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration|Administrator of NASA]], stated that NASA aims to put a man on Mars by 2037.<ref name="mars1">{{Cite news|url=http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?sf=116&set_id=1&click_id=31&art_id=nw20070925190737275C148616|title=NASA aims to put man on Mars by 2037|publisher=[[Independent Online]]|date=September 25, 2007|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> |
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[[Alan Stern]], NASA's "hard-charging"<ref name="SternResign">{{Cite news|title=Stern's Resignation Underscores NASA Science Budget Challenges|author=Frank Morring, Jr.|publisher=[[Space.com]]|first=Leonard|last=David|date=April 6, 2008|url=http://www.space.com/spacenews/archive08/sterngoes_0331.html|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> and "reform-minded"<ref name="Space.com1">{{Cite news|title=Weiler to replace Stern as NASA science chief|first=Brian|last=Berger|publisher=[[Space.com]]|date=March 26, 2008|url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/080326-sn-stern-resigns.html|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> Associate Administrator for the [[Science Mission Directorate]], resigned on March 25, 2008,<ref name="NYT2">{{Cite news|title=NASA's Science Chief Resigns|first=Warren E.|last=Leary|publisher=[[New York Times]]|date=March 27, 2008|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/27/science/27nasa.html?ref=us|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> effective April 11, 2008, after he allegedly ordered funding cuts to the [[Mars Exploration Rover]] (MER) and [[2001 Mars Odyssey|Mars Odyssey]] that were overturned by NASA Administrator [[Michael D. Griffin]]. The cuts were intended to offset cost overruns for the [[Mars Science Laboratory]]. Stern has stated that he "did not quit over MER" and that he "wasn’t the person who tried to cut MER".<ref name="spacepolitics">{{Cite news|title=And then there were… none?|first=Jeff|last=Foust|publisher=[[spacepolitics.com]]|url=http://www.spacepolitics.com/2009/03/24/and-then-there-were-none|date=March 24, 2009|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> Stern, who served for nearly a year and has been credited with making "significant changes that have helped restore the importance of science in NASA’s mission",<ref name="PlanetarySociety">{{Cite press|title=Planetary Society statement on Alan Stern's resignation from NASA|publisher=[[Planetary Society]]|date=March 26, 2008|url=http://planetary.org/about/press/releases/2008/0326_Planetary_Society_Statement_on_Alan.html|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref><ref name="NYT1">{{Cite news|title=Wielding a Cost-Cutting Ax, and Often, at NASA|first=Warren E.|last=Leary|publisher=[[New York Times]]|date=January 1, 2008|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/01/science/space/01stern.html?_r=1&oref=slogin|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> says he left to avoid cutting healthy programs and basic research in favor of politically sensitive projects. Griffin favors cutting "less popular parts" of the budget, including basic research, and Stern's refusal to do so led to his resignation.<ref name="Lawler08">{{Cite journal|first=Andrew|last=Lawler|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/320/5872/31|title=NASA's Stern Quits Over Mars Exploration Plans|(subscription required)|publisher=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=320|number=5872|page=31|date=April 4, 2008|doi=10.1126/science.320.5872.31|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> |
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== Leadership == |
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{{Main|List of NASA Administrators}} |
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The [[Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration|Administrator of NASA]] is the highest-ranking official of that organization and serves as the senior space science adviser to the [[President of the United States]]. On May 24, 2009, President [[Barack Obama]] announced the nomination of [[Charles F. Bolden, Jr.|Charles Bolden]] as NASA Administrator, and [[Lori Garver]] as Deputy NASA Administrator.<ref>{{Cite press|title=President Obama Announces More Key Administration Posts|url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/President-Obama-Announces-More-Key-Administration-Posts-7-6-09/|publisher=[[White House Press Secretary|Office of the Press Secretary]]|date=May 23, 2009|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> Charles Frank Bolden, Jr., was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on July 15, 2009 as the twelfth administrator of NASA. Lori Beth Garver was confirmed as NASA's deputy administrator.<ref name="confirmed">{{Cite press|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2009/jul/HQ_09-165_Bolden_and_Garver.html|Title=Bolden and Garver Confirmed by U.S. Senate|date=July 15, 2009|First=Michael|last=Cabbage|publisher=NASA|accessdate=July 16, 2009}}</ref> |
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== Facilities == |
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[[NASA headquarters]], located in [[Washington, D.C.]], provides overall guidance and direction to the agency.<ref name="HQ">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/hq/home/index.html|title=Welcome to NASA Headquarters|first=Mary|last=Shouse|date=July 9, 2009|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> NASA's Shared Services center is located on the grounds of the [[John C. Stennis Space Center]], near [[Bay St. Louis, Mississippi|Bay St. Louis]], [[Mississippi]].<ref name="NSSC">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nssc.nasa.gov/main/background.htm|title=NASA Shared Services Center Background|first=Rebecca|last=Dubuisson|date=July 19, 2007|accessdate=July 15, 2009}}</ref> Construction of the Shared Services facility began in August 2006 and it was completed in June 2008.<ref name="NSSC"/> NASA operates a short-line [[NASA Railroad|railroad]] at Kennedy Space Center. Various field and research installations are listed below by application. Some facilities serve more than one application for historic or administrative reasons. |
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=== Research centers === |
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[[File:Site du JPL en Californie.jpg|thumb|right|[[JPL]] complex in Pasadena, California]] |
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* [[NASA Ames Research Center|Ames Research Center]], [[Moffett Federal Airfield]], [[Mountain View, California]] |
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* [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]], [[California Institute of Technology]], [[Pasadena, California]] |
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* [[Goddard Institute for Space Studies]], [[New York City]] |
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* [[Goddard Space Flight Center]], [[Greenbelt, Maryland]] |
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* [[Glenn Research Center|John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field]], [[Cleveland, Ohio]] |
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* [[Langley Research Center]], [[Hampton, Virginia]] |
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=== Test facilities === |
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* [[NASA Ames Research Center|Ames Research Center]], [[Moffett Federal Airfield]], [[Mountain View, California]] |
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* [[Dryden Flight Research Center]], [[Edwards Air Force Base]], [[Los Angeles County, California]] |
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* [[Independent Verification and Validation Facility]], [[Fairmont, West Virginia]] |
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* [[John C. Stennis Space Center]], near [[Bay St. Louis, Mississippi]] |
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* [[Langley Research Center]], [[Hampton, Virginia]] |
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=== Construction and launch facilities === |
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[[File:Vehicle-Assembly-Building-July-6-2005.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Vehicle Assembly Building]] and [[Launch Control Center]] at [[Kennedy Space Center]].]] |
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* [[Marshall Space Flight Center|George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]], [[Huntsville, Alabama]] |
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* [[Kennedy Space Center|John F. Kennedy Space Center]], [[Florida]] |
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* [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center]], [[Houston, Texas]] |
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* [[Michoud Assembly Facility]], [[New Orleans, Louisiana]] |
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* [[Wallops Flight Facility]], [[Wallops Island|Wallops Island, Virginia]] |
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* [[White Sands Test Facility]], [[Las Cruces, New Mexico]] |
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=== Deep Space Network === |
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* [[Deep Space Network]] (DSN) stations |
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** [[Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex]], [[Canberra]], [[Australian Capital Territory]] |
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** [[Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex]], [[Barstow, California]] |
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** [[Madrid Deep Space Communication Complex]], [[Madrid]], Spain |
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=== Tourism and museum facilities === |
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* [[Kennedy Space Center#Visitor Complex|Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex]], [[Merritt Island, Florida]] |
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* [[Space Center Houston]], [[Houston, Texas]] |
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* [[United States Space & Rocket Center]], [[Huntsville, Alabama]] |
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* [[Goddard Space Flight Center]], [[Greenbelt, Maryland]] |
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[[File:STS-95 Florida From Space.jpg|thumb|right|[[Florida]], USA, taken from NASA Shuttle Mission [[STS-95]] on October 31, 1998.]] |
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== Awards and decorations == |
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{{Main|Awards and decorations of the United States government#NASA|l1=NASA awards and decorations}} |
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NASA presently bestows a number of medals and decorations to astronauts and other NASA personnel. Some awards are authorized for wear on active duty military uniforms. The highest award is the [[Congressional Space Medal of Honor]], which has been awarded to 28 individuals (17 posthumously), and is said to recognize "any astronaut who in the performance of his duties has distinguished himself by exceptionally meritorious efforts and contributions to the welfare of the Nation and mankind."<ref name="AgencyHonorAwards">{{Cite web|url=http://nasapeople.nasa.gov/awards/nasamedals.htm|title=Agency Honor Awards|first=Mike|last=McCann|date=November 2008|accessdate=July 14, 2009}}</ref> |
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The second highest NASA award is the [[NASA Distinguished Service Medal]], which may be presented to any member of the federal government, including both military astronauts and civilian employees. It is an annual award, given out at the National Aeronautics Space Foundation plant, located in Orlando, Florida.<ref name="AgencyHonorAwards"/> |
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== NASA science == |
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[[File:The Crab Nebula NASA.ogv|thumb|right|upright=0.8|A [[video podcast]]on the [[Crab Nebula]] by NASA]] |
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=== Ozone depletion === |
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In the middle of the 20th century{{Clarify|date=January 2010}} NASA augmented its mission of Earth’s observation and redirected it toward environmental quality. The result was the launch of [[Earth Observing System]] (EOS) in 1980s, which was able to monitor one of the global environmental problems—[[ozone depletion]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cepa.maxwell.syr.edu/papers/49.html|title=NASA and the Environment: The Case of Ozone Depletion|accessdate=April 16, 2008|dateformat=mdy|publisher=The Maxwell School, Syracuse University|year=2006|author=W Henry Lambright }}</ref> The first comprehensive worldwide measurements were obtained in 1978 with the Nimbus-7 satellite and NASA scientists at the [[Goddard Institute for Space Studies]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://toms.gsfc.nasa.gov/eptoms/dataqual/ozone.html|title=Ozone Hole Monitoring|accessdate=May 1, 2008|dateformat=mdy|publisher=NASA|year=2008|author=Dr. Richard McPeters}}</ref> |
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=== Salt evaporation and energy management === |
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In one of the nation's largest restoration projects, NASA technology helps state and federal government reclaim {{convert|15100|acre|km2}} of salt evaporation ponds in South San Francisco Bay. Satellite sensors are used by scientists to study the effect of salt evaporation on local ecology.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/earth-03t.html|title=NASA Helps Reclaim 15,100 Acres Of San Francisco Bay Salt Ponds|accessdate=May 1, 2008|dateformat=mdy|publisher=Space Daily|year=2003}}</ref> |
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NASA has started Energy Efficiency and Water Conservation Program as an agency-wide program directed to prevent pollution and reduce energy and water utilization. It helps to ensure that NASA meets its federal stewardship responsibilities for the environment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://oim.hq.nasa.gov/oia/emd/energy.html|title=Energy Efficiency and Water Conservation|accessdate=May 1, 2008|dateformat=mdy|publisher=NASA|year=2007|author=Tina Norwood }}</ref> |
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=== Medicine in space === |
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{{main|Space medicine}} |
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A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the National Space and Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the [[Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity]] Study in which Astronauts (including former ISS Commanders [[Leroy Chiao]] and [[Gennady Padalka]]) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. Usually, there is no physician onboard the [[International Space Station]] and diagnosis of medical conditions is challenging. In addition, Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including decompression sickness, barotrauma, immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, orthostatic intolerance due to volume loss, sleep disturbances, and radiation injury. [[Ultrasound]] offers a unique opportunity to monitor these conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in populations such as medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare.<ref>http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/ADUM.html</ref><ref>A Pilot Study of Comprehensive Ultrasound Education at the Wayne State University School of Medicine: http://www.jultrasoundmed.org/cgi/content/abstract/27/5/745</ref><ref>Evaluation of Shoulder Integrity in Space: First Report of Musculoskeletal US on the International Space Station: http://radiology.rsna.org/content/234/2/319.abstract</ref> |
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=== Earth Science Enterprise === |
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Understanding of natural and human-induced changes on the global environment is the main objective of NASA's [[Earth Science Enterprise]]. For years it has been cooperating with major environment related agencies and creating united projects to achieve their goal. Past Enterprise’s programs include:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nasascience.nasa.gov/about-us/science-strategy/past-strategy-documents/earth-science-enterprise-plans/?searchterm=Earth%20Science%20Enterprise |title=Earth Science Enterprise Plans |accessdate=May 1, 2008 |dateformat=mdy |publisher=NASA |year=2008 |author=Greg Williams}}</ref> |
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* Carbon sequestration assessment for Carbon Management ([[USDA]], [[United States Department of Energy|DOE]]) |
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* Early warning systems for air and water quality for Homeland Security ([[United States Department of Homeland Security|OHS]], [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency|NIMA]], [[USGS]]) |
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* Enhanced weather prediction for Energy Forecasting ([[United States Department of Energy|DOE]], [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA)) |
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* Environmental indicators for Coastal Management ([[NOAA]]) |
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* Environmental indicators for Community Growth Management (EPA, [[USGS]], NSGIC) |
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* Environmental models for Biological Invasive Species ([[USGS]], [[USDA]]) |
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* Regional to national to international atmospheric measurements and predictions for Air Quality Management ([[United States Environmental Protection Agency]], [[NOAA]]) |
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* Water cycle science for Water Management and Conservation (EPA, [[USDA]]) |
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NASA is working in cooperation with [[National Renewable Energy Laboratory]] (NREL). The goal is to obtain~to produce worldwide solar resource maps with great local detail.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy03osti/33792.pdf|title=Progress on Updating the 1961-1990 National Solar Radiation Database|accessdate=May 1, 2008|dateformat=mdy|publisher=NREL|year=2003|author=D. Renné, S. Wilcox, B. Marion, R. George, D. Myers, T. Stoffel, R. Perez, P. Stackhouse, Jr.}}</ref> NASA was also one of the main participants in the evaluation innovative technologies for the clean up of the sources for [[dense non-aqueous phase liquids]] (DNAPLs). On April 6, 1999, the agency signed The [[Memorandum of Agreement]] (MOA) along with the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]], [[United States Department of Energy|DOE]], and [[USAF]] authorizing all the above organizations to conduct necessary tests at the John F. Kennedy Space center. The main purpose was to evaluate two innovative in-situ remediation technologies, thermal removal and oxidation destruction of DNAPLs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/b1ab9f485b098972852562e7004dc686/137b08f43cc2197e8525674e005f76fd?OpenDocument|title=EPA, DOE, NASA AND USAF Evaluate Innovative Technologies|accessdate=April 28, 2008|dateformat=mdy|publisher=EPA|year=1999|author=EPA}}</ref> National Space Agency made a partnership with Military Services and [[Defense Contract Management Agency]] named the “Joint Group on Pollution Prevention”. The group is working on reduction or elimination of hazardous materials or processes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jgpp.com/JGPP_Charter_02_2005-complete.pdf|title=Joint Group on Pollution Prevention|accessdate=May 1, 2008|dateformat=mdy|publisher=NASA|year=2007|author=Benjamin S. Griffin, Gregory S. Martin, Keith W. Lippert, J.D.MacCarthy, Eugene G. Payne, Jr. }}</ref> |
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On May 8, 2003, [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] recognized NASA as the first federal agency to directly use [[landfill gas]] to produce energy at one of its facilities—the [[Goddard Space Flight Center]], Greenbelt, Maryland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_techrep/TM-2004-212069.pdf|title=Johnson Space Center’s Role in a Sustainable Future|accessdate=April 28, 2008|dateformat=mdy|publisher=NASA|year=2006|author=Michael K. Ewert}}</ref> |
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== See also == |
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{{Portal|Space|Q space.svg}} |
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{{Portal|United States|Flag of the United States.svg}} |
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* [[AESP|Aerospace Education Services Project]] |
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* [[Astronomy Picture of the Day]] |
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* [[List of aerospace engineering topics]] |
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* [[List of NASA aircraft]] |
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* [[List of rockets used by NASA]] |
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* [[List of space agencies]] |
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* [[NASA Acquisition Internet Service]] |
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* [[NASA Research Park]] |
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* [[NASA's Story]] |
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* [[NASAcast]] |
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* [[NASA logo]] |
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== References == |
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{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} |
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== External links == |
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{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-NASA.ogg|September 1, 2005}} |
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{{commons|NASA}} |
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{{wikisource|National Aeronautics and Space Act}} |
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{{wikisource-author}} |
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;General |
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* [http://www.nasa.gov/ NASA Home Page] |
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* [http://www.nasa.gov/offices/nesc/home/index.html NASA Engineering and Safety Center] |
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* [http://nix.nasa.gov/ NASA Photos] and [http://www.nasaimages.org/ NASA Images] |
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* [http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/nasatv/ NASA Television] and [http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/podcasting/ NASA podcasting] |
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* [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2006/06_96AR.html NASA & Google Sign MOU] |
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* [http://spacestation-shuttle.blogspot.com/ Nasa, Space News] |
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* [http://www.nasawatch.com/ NASA Watch, an agency watchdog site] |
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* [http://www.nasa.gov/missions/highlights/schedule.html Future NASA Launch Missions] |
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* [http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/sseop/clickmap/ The Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth] |
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* [http://tarrdaniel.freeweb.hu/documents/nasa.html NASA Website Link Directory - more than 300 NASA websites] |
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* [http://internationalspacemission.blogspot.com/ Internationalspacemission] |
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* [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/Research/Finding_Aids/N.html NASA Documents relating to the Space Program, 1953-62, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library] |
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* [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/Research/Digital_Documents/NASA/NASA.html Online documents pertaining to the early history and development of NASA, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library] |
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* [http://nasa-image.blogspot.com/ NASA Image Blog] |
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* [http://nonsense-verse.blogspot.com/ NASA Space Information] |
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;Further reading |
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* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/nasa.htm How NASA works] |
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* [http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forkids/home/index.html NASA for Kids] |
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* [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/cover.html NASA Historical Data Books (SP-4012)] |
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* [http://history.nasa.gov/series95.html NASA History Series Publications] |
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* [http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/exploration/main/this_month_main.html NASA - This Month in Exploration - Monthly look at Exploration events] |
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* [http://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NODIS: NASA Online Directives Information System] |
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* [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/ NTRS: NASA Technical Reports Server] |
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* [http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=nasa&search_crit=fulltext&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding NASA] |
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* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/hhrhist.pdf Research in NASA History: A Guide to the NASA History Program (large PDF – over 1,012 kb)] |
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Revision as of 17:23, 19 March 2010
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