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<!-- End of infobox. Beginning of article... -->The <!-- DO NOT CAPITALIZE "CIVIL WAR", THIS WAS DISCUSSED IN THE TALK PAGE!-->'''Syrian civil war'''<ref>{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/14/uk-syria-crisis-icrc-idUKBRE86D09B20120714|title= Exclusive: Syria now an "internal armed conflict" – Red Cross|agency=Reuters|date=15 July 2012}}</ref> is an ongoing armed conflict in [[Syria]] between forces loyal to the Syrian [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath Party]] government and those seeking to oust it. The conflict began on 15 March 2011, with popular demonstrations that grew nationwide by April 2011. These demonstrations were part of the wider Middle Eastern protest movement known as the [[Arab Spring]]. Protesters demanded the resignation of President [[Bashar al-Assad]], whose family has held the presidency in Syria since 1971, as well as the end of Ba'ath Party rule.

In April 2011, the [[Syrian Army]] was deployed to quell the uprising, and soldiers fired on demonstrators across the country.<ref name=Sniper>{{cite news|last=Macleod|first=Hugh|title=Seeing Syria through the sniper's sights|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2011/06/20116288467948423.html|newspaper=Al Jazeera|date=29 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/node/99345/section/5 |title="We’ve Never Seen Such Horror" &#124; Human Rights Watch |publisher=Hrw.org |date=2011-06-01 }}</ref> After months of military sieges,<ref>[http://articles.cnn.com/2011-12-24/middleeast/world_meast_syria-unrest_1_bab-amr-security-forces-local-coordination-committees?_s=PM:MIDDLEEAST "Syria's Homs under a military siege, activists say"]. CNN. 24 December 2011. Retrieved 7 February 2013.</ref> the protests evolved into an armed rebellion. Opposition forces, mainly composed of defected soldiers and civilian volunteers, remain without central leadership. The Syrian government characterizes the insurgency as an uprising of "armed terrorist groups and foreign mercenaries".{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} The conflict has no clear fronts, with clashes taking place in many towns and cities across the country.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/14/world/middleeast/russian-envoy-says-syrian-leader-is-losing-control.html|title=Russia Offers a Dark View of Assad's Chances for Survival|date=13 December 2012}}</ref> The [[Arab League]], [[United States]], [[European Union]], and other countries condemned the use of violence against the protesters. The Arab League suspended Syria's membership because of the government's response to the crisis, but granted the [[Syrian National Coalition]] Syria's seat on 6 March 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/AP/status/309334889545744385 |title=BREAKING: Arab foreign ministers |publisher=AP via Twitter |date= |accessdate=2013-03-08}}</ref>

Until middle 2012 the armed conflict had not reached the biggest cities of [[Damascus]] and [[Aleppo]].<ref name="NYTDamascus" /> Late 2012 marked growing influence of the Islamist group [[Jabhat al-Nusra]] within the opposition forces, while [[Hezbollah]] entered the war in support of the Syrian army.<ref name="AlNusraDaraa">{{cite web|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/threat-matrix/archives/2012/11/al_nusrah_front_claims_3_more.php|title=Al Nusrah Front claims 3 more suicide attacks in Daraa|date=27 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yalibnan.com/2013/04/22/hezbollahs-elite-leading-the-battle-in-qusayr-region-of-syria/ |title=Hezbollah’s elite leading the battle in Qusayr region of Syria &#124; Ya Libnan &#124; World News Live from Lebanon |location=LB |publisher=Ya Libnan |date=2013-04-22 }}</ref> The regime is further upheld by support from [[Russia]] and [[Iran]], while [[Qatar]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Turkey]] and [[Jordan]] transfer weapons to the rebels.<ref name="LibyanWeapons" />

In June 2013, the death toll was updated to 92,900–100,000 by the United Nations.<ref name=UN/><ref name=UN1/> According to various opposition activist groups, between 72,960 and 96,430 people have been killed,<ref name=SOHR>{{cite web|url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2013/06/03/192881/assad-backers-reportedly-make.html |title= Assad backers reportedly make up 43 percent of dead in Syria |publisher=SOHR |accessdate=3 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="Violations Documenting Center"/><ref name="Violations Documenting Center1"/><ref name="shuhadamain">{{cite web |url=http://syrianshuhada.com/?lang=en&|title=Syrian Martyrs |publisher=Free Syria |accessdate=2 May 2013}}</ref> of which about half were civilians,<ref name=over40000>{{cite news|agency=Reuters |url=http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=293186 |title=Over 40,000 killed since start of Syria conflict |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=23 November 2012 |accessdate=17 December 2012}}</ref> but also including 58,500 armed combatants consisting of both the Syrian Army and rebel forces,<ref name=SOHR/> up to 1,000 opposition protesters<ref name="almost11,500">{{cite web|url=http://ansamed.ansa.it/ansamed/en/news/sections/politics/2012/03/19/visualizza_new.html_134589467.html |title=Syria: Opposition, almost 11,500 civilians killed |publisher=Ansamed.ansa.it |date=3 January 2010 |accessdate=17 May 2012}}</ref> and 1,000 government officials.<ref name="safepassage"/> By October 2012, up to 28,000 people had been reported missing, including civilians forcibly abducted by government troops or security forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/oct/18/28000-syrians-disappeared-uprising|title=Up to 28,000 Syrians have 'disappeared' since uprising began|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=18 October 2012|accessdate=6 December 2012}}</ref> According to the UN, about 4 million Syrians have been displaced within the country and 1.5 million have fled to other countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/05/17/world/meast/syria-civil-war/?hpt=hp_t1 |title=U.N.: More than 1.5 million fled Syria, 4 million more displaced within nation |publisher=Edition.cnn.com |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> In addition, tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned and there are reports of widespread [[Use of torture since 1948#Syria|torture]] and terror in state prisons.<ref name="npr">{{cite web |last=Peralta |first=Eyder |url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2012/02/03/146346490/rights-group-says-syrian-security-forces-detained-tortured-children |title=Rights Group Says Syrian Security Forces Detained, Tortured Children: The Two-Way |publisher=NPR |date=3 February 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012}}</ref> International organizations have accused both government and opposition forces of severe human rights violations.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18405800 Syrian children used as human shields, says UN report]. BBC.co.uk (12 June 2012).</ref> UN investigations have concluded that the government's abuses are the greatest in gravity, frequency and scale.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/08/15/syria-crisis-un-rights-idUSL6E8JFA3220120815 |title=UPDATE 4-Syrian govt forces, rebels committing war crimes -U.N. |agency=Reuters |accessdate=17 December 2012}}</ref>

==Background==

===Assad government===
{{main|Modern history of Syria|Al-Assad family}}
The [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath Party]] government came to power in 1964 after [[1963 Syrian coup d'état|a successful coup d'état]]. In 1966, [[1966 Syrian coup d'état|another coup]] overthrew the traditional leaders of the party, [[Michel Aflaq]] and [[Salah al-Din al-Bitar]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Wilson |first=Scott |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2014875394_syria26.html |title=Syria escalates attacks against demonstrators |work=The Seattle Times |date=25 April 2011 |accessdate=26 April 2011 }}</ref> General [[Hafez al-Assad]], the [[Ministry of Defense (Syria)|Minister of Defense]], seized power in a "[[1970 Syrian Corrective Revolution|corrective revolution]]" in November 1970, becoming [[Prime Minister of Syria|prime minister]]. In March 1971, Assad declared himself [[President of Syria|President]], a position he would hold until his death in 2000. Since then, the secular Ba'ath Party has remained the dominant political authority in a virtual [[single-party state]] in Syria, and Syrian citizens may only approve the President by [[referendum]] and – until the government-controlled multi-party [[Syrian parliamentary election, 2012|2012 parliamentary election]] – could not vote in multi-party elections for the legislature.<ref name=autogenerated4>{{cite news |url=http://www.npr.org/2011/04/13/135383023/protests-in-syria-pose-challenges-for-the-u-s |title=Protests in Syria Pose Challenges for the U.S |publisher=NPR |accessdate=15 April 2011 }}</ref>

Bashar al-Assad, the President of Syria and [[Asma al-Assad]], his wife - who is a British-born and British-educated Sunni Muslim,<ref name=rose>{{cite news|last=Golovnina |first=Maria |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/19/us-syria-asma-idUSBRE82I0MB20120319 |title=Asma al Assad, a "desert rose" crushed by Syria's strife|agency=Reuters |date=19 March 2012 |accessdate=17 December 2012}}</ref> initially inspired hopes for democratic and state reforms; a "[[Damascus Spring]]" of intense social and political debate took place from July 2000 to August 2001.<ref>{{cite journal |title=No Room to Breathe: State Repression of Human Rights Activism in Syria |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=October 2007 |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=8–13 |url=http://www.hrw.org/en/node/10646/section/4 |accessdate=5 July 2011 }}</ref> The period was characterized by the emergence of numerous political forums or [[Salon (gathering)|salons]], where groups of like-minded people met in private houses to debate political and social issues. Political activists such as [[Riad Seif]], [[Haitham al-Maleh]], [[Kamal al-Labwani]], [[Riyad al-Turk]] and [[Aref Dalila]] were important in mobilizing the movement.<ref>{{cite web |title=Syria Smothering Freedom of Expression: the detention of peaceful critics |url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/MDE24/007/2002/en/ee9fa6f2-d870-11dd-9df8-936c90684588/mde240072002en.html |publisher=Amnesty International |accessdate=5 July 2011}}</ref> The most famous of the forums were the [[Riad Seif Forum]] and the [[Jamal al-Atassi]] Forum. The Damascus Spring ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of ten leading activists who had called for democratic elections and for a campaign of civil disobedience.<ref name=alan>{{cite book |last=George |first=Alan |title=Syria:Neither Bread nor Freedom |year=2003 |publisher=Zed Books |location=New York, NY |isbn=1-84277-213-9 |pages=56–58 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=dFdbVVcKsSIC }}</ref>
===Demographics===
{{Main|Demographics of Syria}}
{{Pie chart
|caption = Ethno-religious composition of Syria<ref name="ISW 2011">{{cite journal | url=http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Struggle_For_Syria.pdf | title=The Struggle for Syria in 2011 | author=Holliday, Joseph | journal=Institute for the Study of War | year=2011 | month=December}}</ref>
|thumb = right
|label1 = Arab-[[Sunni]]
|value1 = 60
|color1 = #4572A7
|label2 = Arab-[[Alawite]]
|value2 = 12
|color2 = #AA4643
|label3 = [[Kurds in Syria|Kurd]]-[[Sunni]]
|value3 = 9
|color3 = #89A54E
|label4 = [[Greek Orthodox Christian]]
|value4 = 9
|color4 = #71588F
|label5 = [[Armenians in Syria|Armenian-Christian]]
|value5 = 4
|color5 = #4198AF
|label6 = Arab-[[Druze]]
|value6 = 3
|color6 = #DB843D
|label7 = Arab-[[Islam in Syria#Ismailis|Ismaeli]]
|value7 = 2
|color7 = #93A9CF
|label8 = [[Syrian Turkmen|Turkmen]]-Sunni, [[Circassians in Syria|Circassian]]-Sunni, [[Assyrian people|Assyrian-Christian]] and others
|value8 = 1
|color8 = #D19392
}}
The [[Assad family]] comes from the minority [[Alawi]]te religious group, an offshoot of [[Shi'ite Islam]] that comprises an estimated 12 percent of the total [[Syrian people|Syrian]] population.<ref>{{cite news |last= Heneghan |first= Tom |date= 23 December 2011 |title= Syria's Alawites are secretive, unorthodox sect |url= http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/12/23/us-syria-religion-alawites-idUSTRE7BM1J220111223 |agency= Reuters |accessdate=1 July 2012 }}</ref> It has maintained tight control on Syria's security services, generating resentment among some Sunni Muslims,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/25/world/middleeast/25assad.html |title=Syrian Crisis Tests the Mettle of Its Autocratic Ruler |date=24 April 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 |work=The New York Times |first=Robert F. |last=Worth |location=Cairo }}</ref> a sect that makes up about three-quarters of Syria's population. Ethnic minority [[Syrian Kurds]] have also protested and complained over ethnic discrimination and denial of their cultural and language rights.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=215547 |title=Syria Kurd leader vows to keep up democracy struggle | work=The Jerusalem Post| accessdate=11 August 2012}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/27/report-12-killed-syrian-port-city |title=US will not intervene in Syria as it has in Libya, says Hillary Clinton |work=The Guardian |date=27 March 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 |location=London}}</ref> The Syrian government allegedly has relied mostly on Alawite-dominated units of the security services to fight the uprising. Assad's younger brother [[Maher al-Assad]] commands the [[Syrian Army|army]]'s elite [[4th Armoured Division (Syria)|Fourth Armored Division]], and his brother-in-law, [[Assef Shawkat]], was the deputy minister of defense until the latter's assassination in the [[18 July 2012 Damascus bombing]].

===Socioeconomics===
Discontent against the government was strongest in Syria's poorer areas, predominantly among conservative Sunnis.<ref name="Poor rural rebels">{{cite news|title=Rebels in Syria's largest city of Aleppo mostly poor, pious and from rural backgrounds|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/10/16/rebels-in-syria-largest-city-aleppo-mostly-poor-pious-and-from-rural/|accessdate=28 January 2013|work=Fox News|agency=Associated Press|date=16 October 2012}}</ref> These included cities with high poverty rates, such as [[Daraa]] and [[Homs]], rural areas hit hard by a drought in early 2011, and the poorer districts of large cities. Socioeconomic inequality increased significantly after free market policies were initiated by Hafez al-Assad in his later years, and accelerated after Bashar al-Assad came to power. With an emphasis on the [[service sector]], these policies benefited a minority of the nation's population, mostly people who had connections with the government, and members of the Sunni merchant class of Damascus and Aleppo.<ref name="Poor rural rebels" /> By 2011, Syria was facing a deterioration in the national standard of living and steep rises in the prices of commodities.<ref>{{cite news|last=Saleeby|first=Suzanne|title=Sowing the Seeds of Dissent: Economic Grievances and the Syrian Social Contract's Unraveling|url=http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/4383/sowing-the-seeds-of-dissent_economic-grievances-an|newspaper=Jadaliyya|date=16 February 2012}}</ref> The country also faced particularly high youth unemployment rates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://journalistsresource.org/studies/government/international/youth-exclusion-in-syria-economic/ |title=Youth Exclusion in Syria: Social, Economic, and Institutional Dimensions |publisher=Journalist's Resource |accessdate=11 August 2012 }}</ref>

===Human rights===
{{Main|Human rights in Syria}}
The state of human rights in Syria has long been the subject of harsh criticism from global organizations.<ref>[http://www.hrw.org/world-report-2010 "World Report 2010 Human Rights Watch World Report 2010"], p. 555.</ref> The country was under [[state of emergency|emergency rule]] from 1963 until 2011, effectively granting security forces sweeping powers of arrest and detention.<ref name="AmInt2009"/> Bashar al-Assad is widely regarded to have been unsuccessful in implementing democratic change, with a 2010 report from [[Human Rights Watch]] stating that he had failed to substantially improve the state of human rights since taking power, although some minor aspects had seen improvement.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/16/syrian-human-rights-unchanged-assad |work=The Guardian |first=Ian |last=Black |title=Syrian human rights record unchanged under Assad, report says |date=16 July 2010 |location=London}}</ref> All political parties other than the Ba'ath Party have remained banned, thereby leaving Syria a one-party state without free elections.<ref name="AmInt2009">{{cite web |url=http://report2009.amnesty.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/syria |publisher=Amnesty International |year=2009 |title=Syria |accessdate=1 February 2012 }}</ref>

Rights of [[freedom of expression|free expression]], [[freedom of association|association]] and [[freedom of assembly|assembly]] were strictly controlled in Syria even before the uprising.<ref name=HRW/> The authorities harass and imprison [[human rights defender|human rights activists]] and other critics of the government, who are oftentimes indefinitely detained and [[torture]]d in poor prison conditions.<ref name=HRW>[http://books.google.com/?id=OZ3a4M_oZccC Human Rights Watch World Report 2005 Events of 2004], [[Human Rights Watch]] 2005. ISBN 1-56432-331-5.</ref>

Women and [[ethnic minority|ethnic minorities]] have faced discrimination in the public sector.<ref name=HRW/> Thousands of [[Kurds in Syria|Syrian Kurds]] were denied citizenship in 1962 and their descendants continued to be labeled as "foreigners".<ref name=cnnkurds>{{cite news |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-04-07/world/syria.kurdish.citizenship_1_kurdish-region-kurdish-identity-stateless-kurds|title=Stateless Kurds in Syria granted citizenship |publisher=CNN |date=7 April 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011 }}</ref> Several riots prompted increased tension in Syria's Kurdish areas since 2004.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brandon |first=James |title=The PKK and Syria's Kurds |url=http://www.jamestown.org/programs/gta/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=1014&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=182&no_cache=1 |journal=Terrorism Monitor |publisher=The Jamestown Foundation|location=Washington, DC |volume=5 |issue=3 |date=21 February 2007 |accessdate=1 February 2012 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mideastweb.org/log/archives/00000231.htm |title=Kurdish agony – the forgotten massacre of Qamishlo |last=Isseroff |first=Ami |work=MideastWeb |date=24 March 2004 |accessdate=16 February 2012 }}</ref> Occasional clashes between Kurdish protesters and security forces have since continued.

===Arab Spring===
{{Main|Arab Spring}}
In December 2010, mass anti-government protests began in Tunisia and later spread across the Arab world, including Syria. By February 2011, revolutions occurred in Tunisia and Egypt, while Libya began to experience [[Libyan civil war|its own civil war]]. Numerous other Arab countries also faced protests, with some attempting to calm the masses by making concessions and governmental changes.

==Uprising and civil war==
{{see also|Timeline of the Syrian civil war|Cities and towns during the Syrian civil war}}

===Beginnings of protests===
[[File:Syria-flag 1932-58 1961-63.svg|thumb|The Syrian Independence flag used by the [[Syrian opposition]]]]
Before the uprising in Syria began in mid-March 2011, protests were relatively modest, considering the [[Arab Spring|wave of unrest that was spreading across the Arab world]]. Syria remained what [[Al Jazeera]] described as a "kingdom of silence", due to strict security measures, a relatively popular president, religious diversity, and concerns over the prospects of insurgency like [[Iraqi insurgency|that seen in neighboring Iraq]].<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/22/us-syria-fear-idUSTRE72L3ME20110322 Fear barrier crumbles in Syrian "kingdom of silence"]. Reuters.</ref>

Minor protests calling for government reforms began in January, and continued into March. A "Day of Rage" was called for by activists in Syria to occur on 4 February via social media websites Facebook and Twitter. However, protests failed to materialize within the country itself.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/41400687/ns/world_news-mideastn_africa/ |title='Day of Rage' Protest Urged in Syria |publisher=MSNBC|accessdate=3 February 2011 }}</ref>

===Uprising (March–May 2011)===
{{main|Civil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war}}
[[File:Huge demonstration in Homs against Al Assad regime.jpg|thumb|Demonstration in Homs against Assad.]]

The conflict initially began as a [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war|civil uprising]], evolved from initially minor protests, beginning as early as January 2011, as a response to the regional [[Arab Spring]]. Large-scale unrest began on 15 March in Damascus, in Aleppo, and in the southern city of Daraa, sometimes called the "Cradle of the Revolution".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12749674|title=Mid-East unrest: Syrian protests in Damascus and Aleppo|publisher=BBC|date=15 March 2011|accessdate=15 March 2013}}</ref> The uprising phase was marked by massive anti-government demonstrations against the Ba'athist regime of Bashar al-Assad. The government responded with brutal crackdowns, resulting in hundreds killed and thousands wounded.

Despite Assad's attempts to pacify the protests with massive crackdown and the use of censorship on one hand and with concessions on the other, the protests continued to grow. When the uprising began in mid-March, many analysts believed that the Syrian government would remain intact, partly due to strict loyalty tests and the fact that most top-position officials belonged to the same sect as Assad, the Alawites. However, in response to the use of lethal force against unarmed protesters, many soldiers and low-level officers began to desert from the Syrian Army. Many soldiers who refused to open fire against civilians were [[Summary execution|summarily executed]] by the army. The first defections occurred during the April Daraa operation.<ref name="ISW 2011" />

===Defections and armed rebellion (June–August 2011)===
[[File:Free Syrian Army soldier walking among rubble in Aleppo.jpg|thumb|A FSA fighter walking among rubble in Aleppo, October 2012]]
The number of defections increased during the following months, as army deserters began to group together to form fighting units. As the uprising progressed, opposition fighters became more well-equipped and organized, and senior military officers and government officials began to defect as well to the [[Syrian opposition|opposition]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Interactive: Tracking Syria's defections|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/syriadefections/|publisher=Al Jazeera|accessdate=1 September 2012}}</ref> Some analysts stated that these defections were signs of Assad's weakening inner circle.<ref>{{cite news|last=Dagher|first=Sam|title=In Paris, Diplomats Cheer Syria General's Defection|url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304141204577510124016836002.html|accessdate=7 July 2012|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=6 July 2012}}</ref>

The [[Siege of Jisr al-Shughur|first instance of armed insurrection]] occurred on 4 June 2011 in [[Jisr ash-Shugur]], a city near the Turkish border in [[Idlib Governorate|Idlib province]]. Angry protesters set fire to a building where security forces had fired on a funeral demonstration. Eight security officers died in the fire as demonstrators took control of a police station, seizing weapons. Clashes between protesters and security forces continued in the following days. Some security officers defected after secret police and intelligence agents executed soldiers who refused to shoot civilians. <ref name="ISW 2011" />

In June and July 2011, protests continued as government forces expanded operations, repeatedly firing at protesters, employing tanks against demonstrations, and conducting arrests. The towns of [[Siege of Rastan and Talbiseh|Rastan and Talbiseh]], and [[Maarat al-Numaan]] were besieged in early June.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian forces take over northwestern town of Maaret al-Numan|url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/syrian-forces-take-over-northwestern-town-of-maaret-al-numan-1.368250|newspaper=Haaretz|date=17 June 2011}}</ref> On 30 June, large protests erupted against the Assad government in Aleppo, Syria's largest city.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13977689 |title=Syria unrest: Protests in Aleppo as troops comb border |publisher=BBC News |date=30 June 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 }}</ref> On 3 July, Syrian tanks were deployed to Hama, two days after the city witnessed the largest demonstration against Bashar al-Assad.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13988701 |title=Syria: 'Hundreds of thousands' join anti-Assad protests |publisher=BBC |date=1 July 2011 |accessdate=3 August 2011}}</ref> On 31 July, a nationwide crackdown nicknamed the "Ramadan Massacre" resulted in the death of at least 142 people and hundreds of injuries.<ref>{{cite news|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=31 July 2011|url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/07/31/syrian-army-kills-at-least-95-in-hama-activist.html |title=Syrian army kills at least 95 in Hama: activist|work=Dawn |accessdate=3 August 2011}}</ref> Some besieged cities and towns were described as having [[famine]]-like conditions.<ref>{{cite news |last=Clanet |first=Christian |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2076778,00.html |title=A French Journalist in Dara'a, Syria's 'Ghetto of Death' |work=Time |date=10 June 2011 |accessdate=21 June 2011 }}</ref>

On 29 July, a group of defected officers announced the formation of the [[Free Syrian Army]] (FSA), which would become the main opposition army. Composed of defected Syrian Armed Forces personnel and civilian volunteers, the rebel army seeks to remove Bashar al-Assad and his government from power. This began a new phase in the conflict, with more armed resistance against the government crackdown. The FSA would grow in size, to about 20,000 by December, and to an estimated 40,000 by June 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Why Syrian Army Can't Crush Opposition|url=http://edition.cnn.com/video/?hpt=hp_t2#/video/bestoftv/2012/06/22/exp-syrian-opposition-forces.cnn|accessdate=28 July 2012|publisher=CNN|date=25 June 2012}}</ref>

On 23 August, a coalition of anti-government groups was formed, the [[Syrian National Council]]. The group, based in Turkey, attempted to organize the opposition. However, the opposition, including the FSA, remained a fractious collection of political groups, longtime exiles, grass-roots organizers and armed militants, divided along ideological, ethnic or sectarian lines.<ref name="NYT Topic: Syria">{{cite news | url=http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/syria/index.html | title=Syria News | work=The New York Times | accessdate=2 August 2012}}</ref>

Throughout August, Syrian forces stormed major urban centers and outlying regions, and continued to attack protests. On 14 August, the [[Siege of Latakia]] continued as the [[Syrian Navy]] became involved in the military crackdown for the first time. [[Gunboat]]s fired [[heavy machine gun]]s at waterfront districts in Latakia, as ground troops and security agents backed by armor stormed several neighborhoods.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/14/us-syria-idUSTRE77D0LP20110814 |agency=Reuters |date=14 August 2011 |accessdate=14 August 2011 |title=Tank, navy attack on Syria's Latakia kills 26-witnesses |last=Oweis |first=Khaled Yacoub |location=Amman }}</ref> The [[Eid ul-Fitr]] celebrations, started in near the end of August, were muted after security forces fired on large demonstrations in Homs, Daraa, and the suburbs of Damascus.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/08/30/164705.html |title=Syrian forces kill seven protesters as Muslims celebrate first day of Eid |publisher=Al Arabiya |date=30 August 2011 |accessdate=1 February 2012 }}</ref>

During the first six months of the uprising, the inhabitants of Syria's two largest cities, Damascus and Aleppo, remained largely uninvolved in the anti-government protests.<ref name=NYTDamascus>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/06/world/middleeast/06damascus.html |title=Life in Syria's Capital Remains Barely Touched by Rebellion |work=The New York Times |date=5 September 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 }}</ref> The two cities' central squares have seen organized rallies of hundreds of thousands in support of president Assad and his government.<ref name="GP">{{cite news |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/middle-east/110624/syria-protests-assad |title=Syria: What motivates an Assad supporter? |work=Global Post |date=24 June 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2012 }}</ref>

===Armed clashes spread (September–October 2011)===
[[File:FSA Fighter.PNG|thumb|left|An [[Free Syrian Army|FSA]] fighter engaged in a firefight in Aleppo]]
A major confrontation between the FSA and the Syrian armed forces [[Battle of Rastan (2011)|occurred in Rastan]]. From 27 September to 1 October, Syrian government forces, backed by tanks and helicopters, led a major offensive on the town of [[Al-Rastan]] in [[Homs Governorate|Homs province]], which had been under opposition control for a couple weeks.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/27/syria-town-idUSL5E7KR02A20110927 | agency=Reuters | title=Syria forces storm main town, fight defectors-residents | date=27 September 2011}}</ref> There were reports of large numbers of defections in the city, and the FSA reported it had destroyed 17 [[armoured vehicles]] during clashes in Rastan, using [[rocket propelled grenade|RPGs]] and [[booby traps]].<ref name=thenational1>{{cite web|author=Zoi Constantine |url=http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/middle-east/thousands-of-troops-desert-from-syrian-army |title=Thousands of troops desert from Syrian army |work=The National |date=30 September 2011|accessdate=4 October 2011}}</ref> The 2011 Battle of Rastan between the government forces and the FSA was the longest and most intense action up until that time. After a week of fighting, the FSA was forced to retreat from Rastan.<ref name=autogenerated1/> To avoid government forces, the leader of the FSA, Col. Riad Asaad, retreated to the Turkish side of Syrian-Turkish border.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/10/04/us-syria-opposition-idUSL5E7L41CT20111004|agency=Reuters|title=Dissident Syrian colonel flees to Turkey|date=4 October 2011|accessdate=18 August 2012|first=Khaled Yacoub|last=Oweis}}</ref> Many of the rebels fled to the nearby city of Homs.<ref name="ISW 2011" />

By October, the FSA started to receive military support from Turkey, who allowed the rebel army to operate its [[Headquarters (military)|command and headquarters]] from the country's southern [[Hatay province]] close to the Syrian border, and its [[battle|field command]] from inside Syria.<ref name="Rebel groups">{{cite news|last=Yezdani|first=İpek|title=Syrian rebels: Too fragmented, unruly|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/syrian-rebels-too-fragmented-unruly.aspx?pageID=238&nID=29158&NewsCatID=352|accessdate=21 September 2012|work=Hürriyet Daily News|date=1 September 2012}}</ref> The FSA would often launch attacks into Syria's northern towns and cities, while using the Turkish side of the border as a safe zone and supply route. A year after its formation, the FSA would gain control over many towns close to the Turkish border.

In October 2011, clashes between government and defected army units were being reported fairly regularly. During the first week of the month, sustained [[October 2011 Jabal al-Zawiya clashes|clashes were reported in Jabal al-Zawiya]] in the mountainous regions of Idlib province. Syrian rebels captured most of Idlib city as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/55206/World/Region/Syria-sends-extra-troops-after-rebels-seize-Idlib-.aspx |title=Syria sends extra troops after rebels seize Idlib: NGO - Region - World - Ahram Online |publisher=English.ahram.org.eg |date= |accessdate=2013-05-16}}</ref> In mid-October, other clashes in Idlib province include the city of [[Binnish]] and the town of [[Hass, Syria|Hass]] in the province near the mountain range of [[Zawiya Mountain|Jabal al-Zawiya]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/Headlines/Article.aspx?id=241610|title=Activist group: Fourteen killed in Syrian violence|date=13 October 2011|work=The Jerusalem Post|agency=Reuters|accessdate=8 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article2546086.ece|title=Activists: Syrian forces fight defectors; 5 killed|date=17 October 2011|accessdate=23 May 2012|work=The Hindu|agency=Associated Press|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> In late October, other clashes occurred in the northwestern town of [[Maarrat al-Nu'man]] in the province between government forces and defected soldiers at a roadblock on the edge of the town, and near the Turkish border, where 10 security agents and a deserter were killed in a bus ambush.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/2011/10/25/idINIndia-60114220111025|agency=Reuters|title=Assad forces fight deserters at northwestern town|date=25 October 2011}}</ref> It was not clear if the defectors linked to these incidents were connected to the FSA.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/afp/11-troops-killed-as-un-chief-urges-end-to-syria-violence/472317 |title=11 troops killed as UN chief urges end to Syria violence |work=Jakarta Globe |date=18 October 2011 |accessdate=23 March 2012 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20120503010732/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/afp/11-troops-killed-as-un-chief-urges-end-to-syria-violence/472317 |archivedate=3 May 2012 |deadurl=yes}}</ref>

===Escalation (November 2011 – March 2012)===
{{See also|Siege of Homs|2012 Homs offensive}}
[[File:VOA Arrott - A View of Syria, Under Government Crackdown 01.jpg|thumb|right|Syrian army checkpoint in Douma, January 2012.]]
In early November, clashes between the FSA and security forces in Homs escalated as the [[Siege of Homs|siege]] continued. After six days of bombardment, the Syrian Army stormed the city on 8 November, leading to heavy street fighting in several neighborhoods. Resistance in Homs was significantly greater than that seen in other towns and cities, and some in opposition have referred to the city as the "Capital of the Revolution". Unlike events in Deraa and Hama, operations in Homs have thus far failed to quell the unrest.<ref name="ISW 2011" />

November and December 2011 saw increasing rebel attacks, as opposition forces grew in number. In the two months, the FSA launched deadly attacks on an [[Air Force Intelligence Directorate|air force intelligence complex]] in the Damascus suburb of [[Harasta]], the Ba'ath party youth headquarters in Idlib province, Ba'ath Party offices in Damascus, [[Homs Province Ambush|an airbase in Homs province]], and an intelligence building in Idlib.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bakri|first=Nada|title=New Phase for Syria in Attacks on Capital|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/21/world/middleeast/insurgents-attack-baath-party-offices-in-damascus.html|work=The New York Times|date=20 November}}</ref> On 15 December, opposition fighters ambushed checkpoints and military bases around Daraa, killing 27 soldiers, in one of the largest attacks yet on security forces.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bakri|first=Nada|title=Syrian Army Defectors Reportedly Kill 27 Soldiers|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/16/world/middleeast/syria-army-defectors-said-to-kill-soldiers-in-coordinated-assault.html|work=The New York Times|date=15 December 2011}}</ref> The opposition suffered a major setback on 19 December, when a failed defection in Idlib province lead to 72 defectors killed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-16258387|title=Syria unrest: Dozens of army deserters 'gunned down'|publisher=BBC|date=20 December 2011}}</ref>

By early 2012 daily protests had dwindled, eclipsed by the spread of armed conflict.<ref>{{cite web|last=Malas |first=Nour |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203922804578080183133298020.html|title=Syria Truce Dawns With Protests, Ends in Clashes|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=26 October 2012}}</ref> January saw intensified [[2011–2012 Damascus clashes|clashes around the suburbs of Damascus]], with the Syrian Army use of tanks and artillery becoming common. [[Battle of Zabadani|Fighting in Zabadani]] began on 7 January when the Syrian Army stormed the town in an attempt to rout out FSA presence. After the first phase of the battle ended with a ceasefire on 18 January, leaving the FSA in control of the town,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrias-zabadani-liberated-but-for-how-long/2012/01/21/gIQAMhDYGQ_story.html|title=Syria's Zabadani is 'liberated,' but for how long?|date=21 January 2012|work=The Washington Post}}</ref> the FSA launched an offensive into nearby Douma. [[Battle of Douma|Fighting in the town]] lasted from 21 to 30 January, before the rebels were forced to retreat as result of a government counteroffensive. Although, the Syrian Army managed to retake most of the suburbs, sporadic fighting continued.<ref>{{cite news|last=Yacoub|first=Khaled|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/30/us-syria-idUSTRE80S08620120130|title=Assad troops fight back against Syria rebels|agency=Reuters|date=30 January 2012}}</ref> [[Battle of Rastan (2012)|Fighting erupted in Rastan]] again on 29 January, when dozens of soldiers manning the town's checkpoints defected and began opening fire on troops loyal to the government. Opposition forces gained complete control of the town and surrounding suburbs on 5 February.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/topic/syria/syria-mar-4-2012-1148 | title=Syria - Mar 4, 2012 - 11:48 | work=Al Jazeera | date=4 March 2012}}</ref>

On 3 February, the Syrian army launched [[2012 Homs offensive|a major offensive]] to retake rebel-held neighborhoods. In early March, after weeks of artillery bombardments and heavy street fighting, the Syrian army eventually captured the district of Baba Amr, a major rebel stronghold. The Syrian Army also captured the district of Karm al-Zeitoun by 9 March, where activists claimed that government forces killed 47 women and children. By the end of March, the Syrian army retook control of half a dozen districts, leaving them in control of 70 percent of the city.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/afp_world/view/1195589/1/.html |title=More than 11,100 killed in Syria in 13 months: NGO |publisher=Channel NewsAsia|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=16 April 2012 }}{{dead link|date=May 2013}}</ref> By early April, the estimated death toll of the conflict, according to activists, has reached 10,000.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://metro.co.uk/2012/04/02/syria-agrees-to-kofi-annans-april-10-peace-deadline-un-security-council-told-374870/ | title=Syria agrees to Kofi Annan's April 10 peace deadline, UN Security Council told | work=Metro | date=2 April 2012}}</ref>

===Ceasefire attempt (April–May 2012)===
{{main|Kofi Annan peace plan for Syria}}
[[File:VOA Arrott - A View of Syria, Under Government Crackdown 08.jpg|thumb|A Syrian soldier manning a checkpoint near Damascus]]
[[Kofi Annan]]'s peace plan provided for a ceasefire, but even as the negotiations for it were being conducted, Syrian armed forces attacked a number of towns and villages, and summarily executed scores of people.<ref name="deadly reprisals">{{Cite journal |separator= . |title= Deadly Reprisals: deliberate killings and other abuses by Syria's armed forces |url= http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/MDE24/041/2012/en/30416985-883b-4e67-b386-0df14a79f694/mde240412012en.pdf |publisher= Amnesty International |date=June 2012 |accessdate=25 June 2012}}</ref>{{rp|11|date=December 2012}} Incommunicado detention, including of children, also continued.<ref>{{cite web |title= Syria: Repression continues despite Annan plan hopes |url= http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/syria-repression-continues-despite-annan-plan-hopes-2012-04-03 |publisher= Amnesty International |date= 3 April 2012 |accessdate=30 June 2012 }}</ref> On 12 April, both sides, the Syrian Government and rebels of the FSA entered a UN mediated ceasefire period. It was a failure, with infractions of the ceasefire by both sides resulting in several dozen casualties. Acknowledging its failure, Annan called for Iran to be "part of the solution", though the country has been excluded from the Friends of Syria initiative.<ref>{{cite web |title= Iran reaffirms full support for Annan's Syria peace plan |url= http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/07/10/225485.html |publisher= Al Arabiya|date= 10 July 2012 |accessdate=10 July 2012 }}</ref> The peace plan practically collapsed by early June and the UN mission was withdrawn from Syria. Annan officially resigned on 2 August 2012.

===Renewed fighting (June 2012)===
Following the [[Houla massacre]] of 25 May 2012 and the consequent FSA ultimatum to the Syrian government, the ceasefire practically collapsed towards, as the FSA began nationwide offensives against government troops. On 1 June, the President Assad vowed to crush the anti-regime uprising, after the FSA announced that it was resuming "defensive operations".<ref name=aa0406>{{cite news|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/06/04/218430.html |title=Deadly violence flares in Syria as EU-Russia seek solutions |publisher=Al Arabiya |date=4 June 2012 |accessdate=6 July 2012}}</ref>

On 5 June, [[Battle of al-Haffah|fighting broke out in Haffa]] and nearby villages in the coastal province of Latakia. Rebels fought with government forces backed by [[helicopter gunship]]s in the heaviest clashes in the province since the revolt began. Syrian forces seized the territory from rebels following eight days of fighting and shelling.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Reuters |url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/assad-names-new-syrian-pm-army-battles-rebels/ |title=Assad names new Syrian PM, army battles rebels |publisher=Trust |date=6 June 2012 |accessdate=6 July 2012}}</ref> On 6 June 78 civilians were killed in the [[Al-Qubeir massacre]]. According to activist sources, government forces started by shelling the village before the [[Shabiha]] militia moved in.<ref>{{cite news|title=New 'massacre' reported in Syria's Hama province|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18348201|publisher=BBC News | date=7 June 2012}}</ref> The UN observers headed to Al-Qubeir in the hope of investigating the alleged massacre, but they were met with a roadblock and small arms fire before reaching the village and were forced to retreat.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria UN team 'shot at' near Qubair 'massacre site'|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18352281|publisher=BBC News | date=7 June 2012}}</ref>

At the same time, the conflict began moving into the two largest cities, Damascus and Aleppo, which the government claimed were dominated by a pro-Assad silent majority. In both cities, peaceful protests – including a general strike by Damascus shopkeepers a small strike in Aleppo were interpreted by some as indicating that the historical alliance between the government and the business establishment in the large cities had become weak.<ref>Ivan Watson (12 June 2012). [http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/11/world/meast/syria-battle-for-cities/index.html "Syria: Battle for the cities"]. CNN. Retrieved 7 February 2013.</ref>

On 22 June, a Turkish [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|F-4 fighter jet]] was [[Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war#F-4 fighter jet incident|shot down by Syrian government forces]], killing both pilots. Tensions between Syria and Turkey dramatically escalated following this incident, as both sides disputed whether the jet had been flying in Syrian or international airspace when it was shot down. Despite Turkish Prime Minister [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]]'s vows to retaliate harshly against Assad's government, no such intervention materialised. Bashar al-Assad publicly apologised for the incident, and relations between the two countries cooled.

===Battles of Damascus and Aleppo (July–October 2012)===
{{Main|Battle of Damascus (2012)|Battle of Aleppo (2012–13)|Rif Dimashq offensive (August–October 2012)}}
[[File:Wounded civilians arrive at hospital Aleppo.jpg|thumb|Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital in Aleppo, October 2012.]]
By mid-July 2012, fighting had spread across the country. Acknowledging this, the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] declared the conflict a civil war.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=BBC|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18849362|title=Syria in civil war, Red Cross says|date=15 July 2012|accessdate=15 July 2012}}</ref> Fighting in Damascus intensified, with a [[Battle of Damascus (2012)|major rebel push]] to take the city.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9407153/Syrian-rebels-launch-campaign-to-liberate-Damascus.html|title=Syrian rebels launch campaign to 'liberate' Damascus|author= Ruth Sherlock; Adrian Blomfield|date=17 July 2012|accessdate=18 July 2012|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London}}</ref>

On 18 July, [[Ministry of Defense (Syria)|Syrian Defense Minister]] [[Dawoud Rajiha]], former defense minister [[Hasan Turkmani]], and the president's brother-in-law General [[Assef Shawkat]] were killed by a [[July 2012 Damascus bombing|bomb attack]] in Damascus.<ref name=telegraph9408321>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9408321/Assads-brother-in-law-and-top-Syrian-officials-killed-in-Damascus-suicide-bomb.html |title=Assad's brother-in-law and top Syrian officials killed in Damascus suicide bomb|author=Damien McElroy|date=18 July 2012|accessdate=18 July 2012|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London}}</ref> The Syrian intelligence chief [[Hisham Ikhtiyar]], who was injured in the same explosion, later succumbed to his wounds.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18920733|title=Syria blast: Security chief Ikhtiar dies from wounds|publisher=BBC News|date=20 July 2012|accessdate=20 July 2012}}</ref> Both the FSA and Liwa al-Islam claimed responsibility for the assassination.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/18/uk-syria-crisis-bombing-claim-idUKBRE86H0FO20120718|title=Two Syrian rebel groups claim Damascus attack|date=18 July 2012|accessdate=18 July 2012|agency=Reuters|first=Erika|last=Solomon}}</ref> The fate of the interior minister [[Mohammad al-Shaar]] was initially the subject of conflicting reports,<ref name=telegraph9408321/> variously reporting him as injured but alive,<ref>{{cite news |title=Syrian interior minister injured but "stable," state TV reports|url=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/nownews/syrian_interior_minister_injured_but_stable_state_tv_reports1|work=NOW Lebanon |date=18 July 2012 |accessdate=28 January 2013}}</ref> and dead.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.ruvr.ru/2012_07_18/Moscow-condemns-Damascus-blast/|title=Moscow condemns Damascus blast|publisher=The Voice of Russia|date=18 July 2012|accessdate=18 July 2012}}</ref> There were also rumors that President Assad might also have been injured in the attack as he did not appear in public for some days, but new images of Assad surfaced days later.<ref>{{cite news|title=Assad Reappears Preview|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18918473 |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=20 July 2012|date=20 July 2012}}</ref> The assassinations were the first of such high-ranking members of Assad's elite since the uprising began. In an interview later that month, General Mohammad Al-Zobi of the rebel forces stated that the explosion had been carried out using 15 kilograms of explosives, which had been smuggled into the building and then detonated remotely.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/jul/27/syrian-army-brink-of-collapse|title=Syrian army supply crisis has regime on brink of collapse, say defectors|author=Luke Harding|work=The Guardian|date=27 July 2012|accessdate=28 July 2012|location=London}}</ref>

On 19 July, Russia and China vetoed a United Nations resolution that would impose sanctions against the Syrian government, showing again the divide in international opinion towards the conflict.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gladstone|first=Rick|title=Russia and China Veto Resolution on Syria|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/russia-and-china-veto-un-sanctions-against-syria.html|accessdate=19 July 2012|work=The New York Times|date=19 July 2012}}</ref> Russia and China, who are major trade allies with Syria, stated that they sought a more balanced resolution calling equally on both sides to halt violence.<ref>{{cite news|title=Fighting Embroils in Syria Preview|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/20/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html|publisher=CNN|accessdate=20 July 2012|date=20 July 2012}}</ref> On the same day, Iraqi officials reported that the FSA had gained control of all four border checkpoints between Syria and Iraq, increasing concerns for the safety of Iraqis trying to escape the violence in Syria.<ref>{{cite news|last=Arango|first=Tim|title=Iraq Says Rebels in Syria Control Border Posts|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/syria-border-with-iraq.html|accessdate=19 July 2012|work=The New York Times|date=19 July 2012}}</ref>

[[File:Syriac1.jpg|thumb|A civilian killed in Aleppo, October 2012.]]
In late July, government forces managed to break the rebel offensive on Damascus by pushing out most of the opposition fighters, although [[Rif Dimashq offensive|fighting still continued in the outskirts]]. After this, the focus shifted to the [[Battle of Aleppo (2012)|battle for control of Aleppo]].<ref>{{cite news| url= http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3693349.ece|title= A decisive battle being waged over Aleppo| date= 28 July 2012 | location=Chennai, India| work=The Hindu| first=Atul| last=Aneja}}</ref> On 25 July, multiple sources reported that the Assad government was using fighter jets to attack rebel positions in Aleppo and Damascus,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/middle-east-live/2012/jul/25/syria-assad-strikes-back-aleppo-live|title=Syria crisis: Assad strikes back with jets in Aleppo and Damascus – live updates|work=The Guardian|date=25 July 2012|accessdate=25 July 2012}}</ref> and on 1 August, UN observers in Syria witnessed government fighter jets firing on rebels in Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news| url= http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article3711815.ece|title= Syria using fighter jets against rebels: UN|agency=Associated Press| date= 1 August 2012 | location=Chennai, India| work=The Hindu}}</ref> In early August, the FSA offensive to capture Aleppo was repelled, and the Syrian Army recaptured Salaheddin district, an important rebel stronghold in Aleppo.

On 19 September, rebel forces seized a border crossing between Syria and Turkey in [[Ar-Raqqah Governorate|Ar-Raqqah province]]. It was speculated that this crossing, along with several other border crossings into Turkey and one into Iraq, could provide opposition forces with strategic and logistical advantages, allowing them greater ease in transporting supplies into the country.<ref>{{cite news |title=Syrian rebels seize control of border crossing on frontier with Turkey |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-202_162-57515876/syrian-rebels-seize-control-of-border-crossing-on-frontier-with-turkey/ |publisher=CBS News |date=19 September 2012 |accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref> In late September, the FSA moved its command headquarters from southern Turkey into rebel-controlled areas of northern Syria.<ref>{{cite news|title=Rebel Group Says It Is Now Based in Syria, a Major Step|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/23/world/middleeast/rebels-move-command-from-turkey-to-syria.html|accessdate=23 September 2012|work=The New York Times|date=23 September 2012}}</ref>

On 3 October 2012, a [[2012 Syrian–Turkish border clashes|Syrian–Turkish border clash]] ensued when a mortar shell fired from Syria hit a residential neighborhood of the Turkish border town of [[Akçakale]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-19822253 | title=Turkey hits targets inside Syria after border deaths | date=3 October 2012 | accessdate=3 October 2012}}</ref> Five Turkish citizens were killed, and the Turkish military responded with artillery strikes against targets inside Syria. This was the most serious cross-border escalation to date.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/10/03/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE88J0X720121003 | title=Turkey strikes back at Syria after mortar kills five | date=3 October 2012 | accessdate=3 October 2012}}</ref>

On 9 October, rebel forces [[Battle of Maarrat al-Nu'man|seized control of Maarat al-Numan]], a strategic town in Idlib province on the highway linking Damascus with Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news|last=Naeem|first=Asad|title=Syria rebels cut highway to northern battlefields|url=http://www.brecorder.com/top-news/1-front-top-news/85378-syria-rebels-cut-highway-to-northern-battlefields-.html|newspaper=Business Recorder|date=11 October 2012}}</ref> By 18 October, the FSA had captured most of [[Douma, Syria|Douma]], the biggest suburb of Damascus, although fighting continued in the area.<ref>{{cite news|last=Di Giovanni|first=Janine|title=Denial Is Slipping Away as War Arrives in Damascus|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/18/world/middleeast/syrian-war-reaches-damascus.html|accessdate=20 October 2012|work=The New York Times|date=18 October 2012}}</ref>

On 22 October, a Jordanian soldier died in a gunfight between Jordanian troops and Islamic militants attempting to cross the border into Syria. Sameeh Maaytah, the Information Minister of Jordan, said the soldier was the first member of the Jordanian military to be killed in clashes connected to the civil war in Syria.<ref name="Jordan soldier killed">{{cite news | url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/10/22/jordanian-soldier-killed-in-clash-with-militants-trying-to-slip-into-syria/ | title=Syria's civil war spills violence across borders into Jordan, Lebanon | date=22 October 2012 | accessdate=23 October 2012 | agency=Associated Press}}</ref>

Lakhdar Brahimi arranged for a ceasefire during Eid al-Adha in late October, but it quickly collapsed as both rebels and the Syrian Army resumed large-scale operations.<ref>{{cite news|last=Weaver|first=Matthew|title=Syria conflict: what next after failed ceasefire?|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/middle-east-live/2012/oct/30/syria-conflict-after-failed-ceasefire-live?intcmp=239|work=The Guardian|date=30 October 2012}}</ref>

===Rebel offensives (November 2012 – March 2013)===
{{further|Battle of Aleppo (2012–13)|Rif Dimashq offensive (November 2012–February 2013)|2012 Hama offensive|Damascus offensive (2013)|Battle of Shadadeh|Battle of Raqqa}}

After Brahimi ceasefire agreement officially ended on 30 October, the Syrian military expanded its aerial bombing campaign in Damascus. A bombing of the Damascus district of Jobar was the first instance of a [[fighter jet]] being used in Damascus airspace to attack targets in the city. The following day, Gen. Abdullah Mahmud al-Khalidi, a Syrian Air Force commander who was described by the state media as one of the country's top aviation experts, was assassinated by opposition gunmen in the Damascus district of Rukn al-Din.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gladstone|first=Rick|title=Syrian Air Force Commander Is Reported Killed|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/31/world/middleeast/syrian-air-force-commander-is-reported-killed.html|accessdate=31 October 2012|work=The New York Times|date=31 October 2012}}</ref>

In early November 2012, rebels made significant gains in northern Syria. The rebel capture of [[Saraqib]] in Idlib province, which lies on the strategic M5 highway, further isolated Aleppo from government-controlled areas of the country.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria army quits base on strategic Aleppo road|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/11/02/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE88J0X720121102|accessdate=6 November 2012|agency=Reuters|date=2 November 2012}}</ref> Due to insufficient anti-aircraft weapons, rebel units attempted to nullify the government's air power by destroying landed helicopters and aircraft on air bases.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian rebels struggle to keep regime Air Force on the ground (+video)|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2012/1126/Syrian-rebels-struggle-to-keep-regime-Air-Force-on-the-ground-video|accessdate=26 November 2012|newspaper=The Christian Science Monitor|date=26 November 2012}}</ref> On 3 November, rebels launched an attack on the [[Taftanaz air base]], a core base for the Syrian military's helicopter and bombing operations.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/11/03/world/meast/syria-civil-war/| title=Rebels target air base in battle against aerial bombardment in Syria | publisher=CNN | date=4 November 2012 | accessdate=6 November 2012}}</ref>

On 18 November, rebels [[Siege of Base 46|took control of]] Base 46 in the [[Aleppo Governorate]], one of the Syrian Army's largest bases in northern Syria, after weeks of intense fighting with government forces. Defected General Mohammed Ahmed al-Faj, who commanded the assault, hailed the capture of Base 46 as "one of our biggest victories since the start of the revolution", claiming nearly 300 Syrian troops had been killed and 60 had been captured, with rebels seizing large amounts of heavy weapons, including tanks.<ref>
{{cite news
|url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/ap-exclusive-syrian-rebels-seize-base-arms-trove
|title=Base Seizure Sharp Blow to Syria's Efforts to Roll Back Rebel Gains
|agency=[[Associated Press]]
|first=Ben
|last=Hubbard
|date=20 November 2012
|accessdate=2013-03-19
}}</ref>

On 22 November, rebels captured the [[Mayadeen]] military base in the country's eastern Deir ez Zor province. Activists said this gave the rebels control of a large amount of territory east of the base, stretching to the Iraqi border.<ref>{{cite news|last=Yeranian|first=Edward|title=Analysts Weigh in on Longevity of Syria's Assad|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/analysts_weight_in_on_longevity_of_syrias_assad/1551388.html|accessdate=24 November 2012|publisher=Voice of America|date=22 November 2012}}</ref> On 29 November, at approximately 10:26 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]], the Syrian Internet and phone service was shut off for a two-day period.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/11/28/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html|title=Virtually all Internet service in Syria shut down, group says|publisher=CNN|date=29 November 2012|accessdate=6 December 2012}}</ref> There was much speculation that the Syrian government was responsible for the outage; however, state sources denied responsibility and blamed the blackout on [[fiber optic]] lines near Damascus becoming exposed and damaged.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/world/syria-s-internet-restored-after-two-day-blackout-320866.html|title=Syria's Internet Restored After Two Day Blackout|work=The Epoch Times|date=2 December 2012|accessdate=17 February 2013}}</ref>

In mid-December 2012, American officials said that the Syrian military had resorted to firing [[Scud]] ballistic missiles at rebel fighters inside Syria. Reportedly, six Scud missiles were fired at the Sheikh Suleiman base north of Aleppo, which rebel forces had occupied. It is unclear whether the Scuds hit the intended target.<ref name="Scud Missiles2" /> The government denied this claim.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/world/2012-12/13/c_132039471.htm |title=Syria denies using Scud missiles in fighting armed militia |agency=Xinhua News Agency |date=13 December 2012 |accessdate=17 December 2012}}</ref> Later that month, a further Scud attack took place near Marea, a town in a rebel-held area north of Aleppo near the Turkish border. The missile appeared to have missed its target.<ref name="Scud Missiles2">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/21/world/middleeast/syrian-forces-lobbing-more-scud-missiles-at-rebels-us-says.html |title=Syria Fires More Scud Missiles at Rebels, U.S. Says |work=The New York Times|date=20 December 2012 |accessdate=27 December 2012}}</ref> That same month, the British ''[[The Daily Telegraph|Daily Telegraph]]'' reported that the FSA had now penetrated into Latakia province's Mediterranean coast through Turkey, and that the Syrian government's forces were unable to repel the FSA invasion thus far.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian rebels cut off Bashar al-Assad's escape route|author=Ruth Sherlock|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9751531/Syrian-rebels-cut-off-Bashar-al-Assads-escape-route.html |work=The Daily Telegraph|date=17 December 2012|accessdate=17 December 2012}}</ref>

In late December, rebel forces pushed further into Damascus, taking control of the adjoining [[Yarmouk, Damascus|Yarmouk]] and Palestine refugee camps, pushing out fighters from the pro-government [[PFLP-GC|Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command]] with the help of other factions.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20766628 "Syria rebels make further gains"]. BBC. 18 December 2012. Retrieved 6 February 2013.</ref> Rebel forces launched [[2012 Hama offensive|an offensive]] against army positions in Hama province, later claiming to have forced army regulars to evacuate several towns and bases,<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian rebels launch major assault on army across Hama|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-1-148994-Syrian-rebels-launch-major-assault-on-army-across-Hama|accessdate=18 December 2012|newspaper=The News International|date=18 December 2012}}</ref> and stating that "three-quarters of western rural Hama is under our control."<ref>{{cite news|title=Rebels seize towns in central Syria |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/12/19/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE8AJ1FK20121219 |accessdate=20 December 2012 |agency=Reuters |date=19 December 2012}}</ref> Rebels also captured the northern town of Harem near the Turkish border in Idlib province, after weeks of heavy fighting.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian rebels fully capture town near Turkish border after weeks of siege|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/un-envoy-to-syria-worried-over-crisis-after-talks-with-assad/2012/12/24/69ed3892-4e29-11e2-835b-02f92c0daa43_story.html |accessdate=25 December 2012|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=24 December 2012}}{{dead link|date=May 2013}}</ref>

On 11 January, Islamist groups, including Jabhat al-Nusra, took full control of the strategic [[Taftanaz]] air base in the northern Idlib province, after weeks of fighting. The air base, one of the largest in northern Syria, was often used by the military to carry out helicopter raids and deliver supplies. The rebels claimed to have seized helicopters, tanks and multiple rocket launchers, and other military equipment, before being forced to withdraw by a government counter-attack. The leader of the Al-Nusra brigade said the amount of weapons they took was a "game changer".<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian rebels seize key air base, activists say|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/01/11/syrian-rebels-seize-key-air-base-activists-say/1826117/|accessdate=11 January 2013|agency=AP|work=USA Today|date=11 January 2013}}</ref>

On 17 January, clashes broke out between Islamist rebels and Kurdish militiamen near the town of [[Ras al-Ayn, al-Hasakah|Ras al-Ain]]. According to the Kurdish National Council (KNC), the Islamist rebels came across the border from Turkey and began shelling the town indiscriminately. The KNC appealed to the Free Syrian Army and the main opposition National Coalition to halt the siege. Activists stated that they feared Turkey sought to use jihadists in its conflict with the Kurds.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/kurd-jihadist-clashes-intensify-near-turkey.aspx?pageID=238&nID=39428&NewsCatID=352 |title=Kurd-jihadist clashes intensify near Turkey |date=19 January 2013 |work=Hürriyet Daily News|accessdate=28 January 2013}}</ref>

On 11 February, Islamist rebels captured the town of [[Al-Thawrah]] in Raqqa province and the nearby [[Tabqa Dam]], Syria's largest dam and a key source of [[hydroelectricity]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/12/world/middleeast/syrian-insurgents-claim-to-control-large-hydropower-dam.html?_r=0|title=Syrian Insurgents Claim to Control Large Hydropower Dam|work=New York Times|date=11 February 2013|accessdate=12 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/nowsyrialatestnews/rebels-take-control-of-military-airport-in-north-syria-ngo-says | title=Rebels take control of military airport in North Syria, NGO says | publisher=NOW News | date=12 February 2013|accessdate=12 February 2013}}</ref> The next day, rebel forces took control of Jarrah air base, located {{convert|60|km|mi}} east of Aleppo. The base had been used to launch bombing raids in Aleppo province, and had served as an important supply line for the Assad regime.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/02/12/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE91A0MU20130212 | title=Syrian air base falls, Assad forces under pressure | publisher=Reuters | date=12 February 2013|accessdate=12 February 2013}}</ref> On 14 February, fighters from Jabhat al-Nusra took control of Shadadeh, a town located in Hasakah province near the Iraqi border.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/nowsyrialatestnews/jihadists-seize-syria-town-on-iraq-border | title=Jihadists seize Syria town on Iraq border | publisher=NOW News | date=14 February 2013|accessdate=16 February 2013}}</ref>

On 20 February, a [[car bomb]] exploded in the Mazraa neighborhood of Damascus near the Ba'ath Party headquarters, killing at least 53 people and injuring more than 235.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-21529634|title=Syria conflict: Many dead in huge Damascus bombing|publisher=BBC|date=21 February 2013|accessdate=21 February 2013}}</ref> None of the organized groups on either side in the conflict claimed responsibility.<ref>{{cite news|last=Barnard|first=Anne|title=Car Bomb in Damascus Kills Dozens, Opposition Says|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/22/world/middleeast/car-bomb-in-damascus-kills-dozens-opposition-says.html?_r=0|work=[[New York Times]]|accessdate=21 February 2013|coauthors=Hwaida Saad and Hania Mourtada|date=21 February 2013}}</ref>

On 21 February, the FSA in Quasar began shelling Hezbollah positions in Lebanon. Prior to this, Hezbollah militants had been shelling villages near Quasar from within Lebanon. A 48-hour ultimatum was issued by a FSA commander on 20 February, warning the militant group to stop the attacks or face retaliation.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/syrian-rebels-attack-hezbollahs-positions-in-lebanon-fsa-commander.aspx?pageID=238&nID=41647&NewsCatID=352 | title=Syrian rebels attack Hezbollah's positions in Lebanon: FSA commander | work=Hurriyet Daily News | date=22 February 2013}}</ref>

On 2 March, intense clashes between rebels and the Syrian Army erupted in the north-central city of Raqqa, with many reportedly killed on both sides.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-21641113|title=Syria: Fierce clashes in provincial capital Raqqa|publisher=BBC|date=2 March 2013|accessdate=6 March 2013}}</ref> On the same day, Syrian troops regained several villages along the highway near Aleppo.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/03/01/3261503/syrian-rebel-chief-fighters-desperate.html | title=Syria, Iran say US aid to rebels will extend war | work=Miami Herald | date=3 March 2013|accessdate=6 March 2013}}{{dead link|date=May 2013}}</ref> By 3 March, rebels had overrun Raqqa's central prison, allowing them to free hundreds of prisoners, according to the SOHR.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/topic/syria-153|title=Syria Live Blog|publisher=Al Jazeera|accessdate=6 March 2013}}</ref> The SOHR also claimed that rebel fighters were now in control of most of an Aleppo police academy in Khan al-Asal, and that over 200 rebels and government troops had been killed fighting for control of it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-21647196|title=Rebels 'seize most of Syria police academy'|publisher=BBC|date=3 March 2013|accessdate=6 March 2013}}</ref>

On 4 March, rebel forces launched an offensive to capture Raqqa outright. By 6 March, the rebels had captured the entire city, effectively making Raqqa the first provincial capital to be lost by the Assad regime. Residents of Raqqa celebrated by reportedly tearing down a huge poster of Assad, and toppling a bronze statue of his late father [[Hafez Assad]] in the centre of the city. The rebels also seized two top government officials.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/syrian-rebels-capture-northern-city-18647439|title=Syrian Rebels Battle Regime Holdouts in Raqqa|publisher=ABC News|date=5 March 2013|accessdate=6 March 2013}}</ref>

On 18 March, the Syrian Air Force attacked rebel positions in Lebanon for the first time. The attack occurred at the Wadi al-Khayl Valley area, near the border town of Arsal.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/19/world/middleeast/syria-warplanes-hit-lebanon-for-first-time.html | title=Syria Warplanes Hit Lebanon for First Time | work=New York Times | date=18 March 2013}}</ref>

On 21 March, a suspected suicide bombing in the Iman Mosque in Mazraa district killed as many as 41 people, including the high profile Pro Assad Sunni cleric, Sheikh [[Mohammed al-Buti]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Jim Muir |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-21887877 |title=Syria mosque blast: Pro-Assad cleric among dozens dead |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2013-03-21 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

On 23 March, several rebel groups seized the 38th division air defense base in southern Daraa province near a strategic highway linking Damascus to Jordan.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.chron.com/news/world/article/Rebels-seize-air-defense-base-in-southern-Syria-4378672.php | title=Rebels seize air defense base in southern Syria | work=Houston Chronicle | date=23 March 2013}}{{dead link|date=May 2013}}</ref> On the next day, rebels captured a 25&nbsp;km strip of land near the Jordanian border, which included the towns of [[Muzayrib|Muzrib]], Abdin, and the al-Rai military checkpoint.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2013/Mar-24/211277-activists-clashes-in-syria-near-jordan-border.ashx#axzz2OSgwmleH | title=Rebels seize Jordan-Syria border area: activists | work=The Daily Star | date=24 March 2013}}</ref>

On 25 March, rebels launched one of their heaviest bombardments of Central Damascus since the revolt began, with mortars reportedly hitting Umayyad Square, where Baath Party headquarters, Air Force Intelligence and state television are also located. The attack was launched when rebel forces advanced into the [[Kafr Souseh]] district of Damascus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/03/25/us-syria-crisis-damascus-idUSBRE92O07320130325 |title=Syrian rebels bombard central Damascus, army artillery hits back |publisher=Reuters.com |date=2013-03-25 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

On 26 March 2013, near the Syrian town of al-Qusayr, rebel commander Khaled al Hamad, who commands the Al Farooq al-Mustakilla Brigade and is also known by his nom de guerre Abu Sakkar, ate the heart and liver of a dead soldier and said "I swear to God, you soldiers of Bashar, you dogs, we will eat from your hearts and livers! O heroes of Bab Amr, you slaughter the Alawites and take out their hearts to eat them!" in an apparent attempt to increase sectarianism.<ref>{{cite web|last=Baker |first=Aryn |url=http://world.time.com/2013/05/12/atrocities-will-be-televised-they-syrian-war-takes-a-turn-for-the-worse/ |title=Savage Online Videos Fuel Syria’s Descent Into Madness |publisher=World.time.com |date=2013-05-12 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref><ref name="eating a human heart">{{cite web | url=http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/05/13/most_disgusting_atrocity_syrian_civil_war_rebel_eat_heart | title=Is This the Most Disgusting Atrocity Filmed in the Syrian Civil War? | publisher=Foreign Policy magazine | date=MAY 13, 2013 | accessdate=2013-05-14 | author=BOUCKAERT, PETER}}</ref> Video of the event emerged two months later and resulted in considerable outrage, especially from Human Rights Watch which classified the incident as a war crime. According to the BBC, it was one of the most gruesome videos to emerge from the conflict up-to-date.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22519770 |title=Outrage at Syrian rebel shown 'eating soldier's heart' |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2013-05-14 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

On 29 March, rebels captured the strategic town of [[Da'el]] after days of fierce fighting. The town is located in Daraa Province, along the strategic highway connecting Damascus to Jordan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/03/29/syrian-rebels-capture-strategic-southern-town-near-jordan-border-after-clashes |title=Syrian rebels capture key town near Jordan border after clashes kill 38 |publisher=Foxnews.com |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/rebels-claim-to-take-key-city-in-southern-syria/2013/03/29/e53b75e8-987c-11e2-814b-063623d80a60_story.html | title=Rebels claim to take key city in southern Syria | work=Washington Post | date=29 March 2013}}</ref>

On 3 April, rebels captured a military base near the city of Daraa.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/04/world/middleeast/Syria-rebels.html | title=New Rebel Gains Reported in Southern Syria With Seizure of Military Base | work=New York Times | date=3 April 2013}}</ref>

===Government and Hezbollah offensives (April 2013 – present)===
{{further|Al-Qusayr offensive|Battle of al-Qusayr (2013)}}
[[File:Syrian Civil War.svg|thumb|right|350px|Military situation in Syria (as of 5 June 2013).<br>{{legend|#5fd35f|Cities controlled by the Syrian government}}{{legend|#501616|Cities controlled by opposition or Kurdish forces}}{{legend|#0000ff|Ongoing conflict/unclear situation<br>
(For a more detailed map, see [[Cities and towns during the Syrian civil war#Maps of territorial control|here]])}}]]

On 17 April, government forces breached a six-month rebel blockade in Wadi al-Deif, near Idlib. Heavy fighting has been reported around the town of Babuleen after government troops outflanked weakened rebel positions with troops now attempting to secure control of a main highway leading to Aleppo. The break in the siege also allowed government forces resupply two major military bases in the region which had been relying on sporadic airdrops.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jafrianews.com/2013/04/17/syrian-forces-loyal-to-asaad-break-rebel-blockade-in-north-syria/ |title=Syrian forces Loyal to Asaad break Rebel Blockade in North Syria &#124; |publisher=Jafrianews.com |date=2013-04-17 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

On 18 April, the FSA took control of Al-Dab'a Air Base near the city of al-Qusayr.<ref>{{cite web|author=April 18, 2013 10:30PM |url=http://www.news.com.au/breaking-news/world/syria-rebels-claim-strategic-airbase/story-e6frfkui-1226623878591 |title=Syria rebels claim strategic airbase |publisher=News.com.au |date=2013-04-18 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> The base had no aircraft and was being used primarily to garrison ground troops. Meanwhile, the Syrian Army took control over the town of Abel. The SOHR director described the Army takeover of the town by saying that it will hamper rebel movements between al-Qusayr and Homs city. According to him, the capture of the airport would have relieved the pressure on the rebels in the area, but their loss of [[Abil|Abel]] made the situation more complicated.<ref name="seize">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130418/syria-troops-seize-strategic-homs-village |title=Syria troops seize strategic Homs village |publisher=Globalpost.com |date=2013-04-18 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.facebook.com/syriaohr/posts/360654180709593 |title=Homs province 1 |publisher=Facebook.com |date=2013-04-18 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> The same day, rebels also reportedly assassinated Ali Ballan, who was head of public relations at the Ministry of Social Affairs and a member of Syria's relief agency, in a restaurant at Mazzeh district in Damascus.<ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=177898504 Fierce Battles In Syria; US To Raise Aid To Rebels : NPR]{{dead link|date=May 2013}}</ref> On 21 April, government forces [[battle of Jdaidet al-Fadl|captured the town of Jdaidet al-Fadl]], near Damascus.<ref>{{cite web|author=Sebastian Usher Arab affairs editor |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22240540 |title=Syria army seizes Jdaidet al-Fadl 'killing dozens' |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2013-04-22 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.facebook.com/syriaohr/posts/361594650615546 |title=Regime forces take full control of Jdeidat al-Fadl. Reports of 250 dead |publisher=Facebook.com |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

In April, government and [[Hezbollah]] forces launched [[Al-Qusayr offensive|an offensive]] to capture rebel-held areas near al-Qusayr. On 21 April, pro-Assad forces captured the towns of Burhaniya, Saqraja and al-Radwaniya near the Lebanese border.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20130421-syria-army-closes-qusayr-near-lebanon |title=Syria army closes in on Qusayr near Lebanon |publisher=France24.com |date=2013-04-21 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Yacoub |first=Khaled |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/04/21/us-syria-crisis-lebanon-idUSBRE93K0DN20130421 |title=Syria fighting flares both sides of Lebanese border |publisher=Reuters.com |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> By this point, eight villages had fallen to the government offensive in the area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/thomson-reuters/130421/lebanon-border-area-mired-syrian-conflict |title=Lebanon border area mired in Syrian conflict |publisher=Globalpost.com |date=2013-04-21 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

On 24 April, after five weeks of fighting, government troops seized control of the town of Otaiba, east of Damascus. The town had been under rebel control for the previous eight months, serving as the main arms supply route from Jordan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/assad-might-be-winning-the-syrian-war-2013-4?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+businessinsider%2Fpolitics+%28Business+Insider+-+Politix%29|title=Assad Thinks He's Winning The Syrian War – And He May Be Right|date=25 April 2013|accessdate=2013-04-27}}</ref> Meanwhile in the north of the country, rebels took control of a key position on the edge of the strategic Mennagh Military airbase, on the outskirts of Aleppo. This allowed them to enter the airbase after months of besieging it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22283746 |title=Syria clashes destroy ancient Aleppo minaret |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2013-04-24 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

On 2 May, government forces captured the town of Qaysa which lies to the east of Damascus in a steady push north from the city's airport. Troops also retook the Wadi al-Sayeh central district of Homs, driving a wedge between two rebel strongholds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/middle-east/dozens-massacred-as-syrian-forces-storm-coastal-village-1.1380880 |title=Dozens massacred as Syrian forces storm coastal village - Middle East News &#124; Latest News Headlines &#124; The Irish Times - Thu, May 02, 2013 |publisher=The Irish Times |date=2013-05-02 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> SOHR reported [[Bayda and Baniyas massacres|a massacre]] of over 100 people in the coastal town of Al Bayda, Baniyas, when the Syrian army stormed the town. However, this could not be independently verified due to movement restrictions on the ground.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2013/May-02/215831-up-to-100-feared-dead-in-syrian-massacre-monitoring-group.ashx#axzz2SAjabaj0 |title=Dozens killed in Syria's Banias: watchdog &#124; News , Middle East |publisher=The Daily Star |date=2013-05-02 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> Yet the multiple video images that residents said they had recorded in Bayda and Ras al-Nabeh — particularly of small children, were so shocking that even some government supporters rejected Syrian television’s official version of events, that the army had simply "crushed a number of terrorists."<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/15/world/middleeast/grisly-killings-in-syrian-towns-dim-hopes-for-peace-talks.html?pagewanted=all New York Times, 15 May 2013]</ref>

On 3 May 2013, the Syrian army backed by the [[Shabiha]] reportedly committed a massacre of civilians near the city of Baniyas. The [[Syrian Observatory for Human Rights]] said that at least 50 people – and possibly as many as 100 – were killed. Witnesses said the dead were killed with knives or blunt objects and that dozens of villagers were still missing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2318993/U-S-says-arming-Syrian-rebels-option-Assad-accused-killing-50-men-women-children-large-scale-massacre.html |title=Syrian dictator Assad 'massacres up to 100 men, women and children' with knives and guns as U.S says arming rebels is now an option |publisher=Dailymail.co.uk |date=2013-04-05 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

On 8 May, government forces captured the strategic town of Khirbet Ghazaleh, situated along the highway to the Jordanian border. Over 1,000 rebel fighters withdrew from the town due to the lack of reinforcements and ammunition. The loss of the town also resulted in the reopening of the government supply-route to the contested city of Daraa. The rebels continued to withdraw from other towns and decided not to face the Army's advance along the highway.<ref>{{cite web|last=Al |first=Suleiman |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/05/08/us-syria-crisis-town-idUSBRE94703H20130508 |title=Assad's forces capture strategic town in southern Syria |publisher=Reuters.com |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> On 11 May, the rebels managed to cut a newly build desert road used as an Army supply route between central Syria and Aleppo's airport.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.startribune.com/world/206906801.html |title=Syrian rebels cut major desert road linking the country's 2 largest cities |publisher=Startribune.com |date=2013-05-11 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> On 12 May, government forces took complete control of Khirbet Ghazaleh and secured the highway near the town.<ref>{{cite news|author=AP |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syrian-troops-retake-strategic-town-8613515.html |title=Syrian troops retake strategic town |publisher=Independent.co.uk |date=2013-05-13 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

By mid-May, due to the recent Army gains in retaking modest, but strategically important, locations, military analysts pointed out that the government will have a major advantage in any future peace talks with the opposition and the West. Pro-government, rebel and independent analysts credited the government advances to the major restructuring of their forces, which they filled with thousands of militia irregulars trained at least in part by Hezbollah and Iranian advisers in counter-insurgency operations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/news/world/assad-forces-appear-to-gain-ground-in-syria-687251/ |title=Assad forces appear to gain ground in Syria |publisher=Post-gazette.com |date=2013-05-12 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> The government's success was also credited to the shift by the Army from conducting counter-insurgency operations to holding on to strategic areas and not trying to recapture the whole country and crush the rebellion.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gopnik |first=Blake |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/05/17/syria-s-bashar-al-assad-is-winning.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+thedailybeast%2Farticles+%28The+Daily+Beast+-+Latest+Articles%29 |title=Syria’s Bashar Al-Assad is Winning |publisher=Thedailybeast.com |date=2013-05-17 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

On 13 May, government forces captured the towns of Western Dumayna, Haidariyeh and Esh al-Warwar allowing them to block supplies to the rebels in al-Qusayr.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jT0RGZgiJxBSeHl1Ldoqv8uU8ITw?docId=CNG.b736c800fa345dd0ed4b84ca0517bc60.2a1 |title=Abandoned arms as Syria rebels pull back near Qusayr |publisher=Google.com |date=2013-05-13 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=58725 |title=Screws tighten on rebels as Assad forces advance on Qusayr |publisher=Middle-east-online.com |date=2013-05-13 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

On 16 May, rebels also claimed they recaptured the town of Qaysa, Rif Damascus, after launching a unified counter-offensive.<ref name="chicagotribune">{{cite news|author=Suleiman Al-Khalidi | agency=Reuters |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/sns-rt-us-syria-crisis-offensivebre94f0t4-20130516,0,5881018.story |title=Syrian rebels launch offensive in south to reverse losses |publisher=Chicago Tribune |date=2013-05-16 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> On 17 May, rebels captured four villages in Eastern Hama, including the Alawite town of Tulaysiah. The villages were abandoned by its residents days before the rebels arrived.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/nowsyrialatestnews/syria-rebels-seize-alawite-villages-in-hama |title=Syria rebels seize Alawite villages in Hama |publisher=Now.mmedia.me |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

On 19 May, government forces captured the rebel-held town of Halfaya in Hama Province.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=58839&utm_source=twitterfeed&utm_medium=twitter |title=Strategic city of Qusayr falls into hands of Assad forces: |publisher=Middle East Online |date=2013-05-19 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> The Syrian army also launched its offensive against the rebel-held town of Qusayr after taking control of surrounding villages and countryside. A military source reported the Army entered Qusayr, capturing the city center and the municipality building.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/168127 |title=Senior Hizbullah Official Killed in Syria Fighting |publisher=Israelnationalnews.com |date=2013-05-20 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> One opposition activist denied this,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.3news.co.nz/Syrian-troops-attack-rebel-town-30-dead/tabid/417/articleID/298362/Default.aspx |title=Syrian troops attack rebel town, 30 dead |publisher=3news.co.nz |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> but another confirmed it and stated the Army was in control of 60 percent of the city.<ref name="key">[http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/20/world/middleeast/syrian-army-moves-to-rebel-held-qusayr.html?pagewanted=al&_r=0 Hezbollah Aids Syrian Military in a Key Battle]</ref> An al Jazeera reporter in Beirut also said that it seemed that the Syrian army had control of most of the town.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/05/2013519124646578835.html |title=Syrian offensive on Qusayr deepens |publisher=Aljazeera.com |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> During the day's fighting, Hezbollah commander Fadi al-Jazar was killed.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sterman |first=Adiv |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/?p=512540 |title=Hezbollah commander killed in assault on Syria border town |publisher=The Times of Israel |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

An anonymous opposition source told the Associated Press that the attack was launched from the east and the south and that Hezbollah fighters took control of the town hall in a few hours and that by the end of the day, rebels units were pushed out of most of Qusayr. He added that the fighting was now concentred in the northern part of the city.<ref>{{cite web|last=Surkzeina |first=Barbara |url=http://news.findlaw.com/apnews-lp/ad272d2fe3114eda8d5d165d80266d67 |title=Report: 23 Hezbollah members killed in Syria |publisher=News.findlaw.com |date=2013-05-20 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> The attack appeared to surprise the rebels, who expected the army to push by the north on several rebels controlled villages before attacking the city. The turning point of the offensive was reached when Hezbollah fighters took control of the Al Tal area overlooking Qusayr. Several rebels fighters accused some commanders from fleeing the Al tal area at the last minute.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/syria-turning-point-battle-qusayr |title=Syria: Turning Point in the Battle of Qusayr |publisher=Al Akhbar English |date=2013-05-20 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> Meanwhile SOHR reported that the Syrian army was at the area by the western neighborhood of al-Quseir in order to lay siege on the city itself.<ref name="homsprovince">{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/syriaohr/posts/371102882998056 |title=Homs province 6 |publisher=Facebook.com |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

On 24 May, rebels captured a military base near the town of Nairab.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/topic/syria/syrian-rebel-fighters-capture-army-base-northwestern-syria |title=Syrian rebel fighters capture an army base in northwestern Syria - Al Jazeera Blogs |publisher=Blogs.aljazeera.com |date=2013-05-23 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

By 29 May, government forces captured the al-Dabaa air base, north of al-Qusayr.<ref name="setback">{{cite web|last=Enders |first=David |url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/05/29/3422918/hezbollah-said-to-control-most.html |title=Hezbollah said to control most of Qusayr in major setback for Syria rebels |publisher=Miamiherald.com |date=2013-05-29 |accessdate=2013-06-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/syriaohr/posts/374984702609874 |title=Homs province |publisher=Facebook.com |date= |accessdate=2013-06-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/05/29/us-syria-crisis-dabaa-idUSBRE94S0ZO20130529 |title=Syrian army seizes strategic air base near Qusair: media |publisher=Reuters.com |date= |accessdate=2013-06-04}}</ref>

On 1 and 2 June, after heavy fighting, the Syrian Army recaptured three of the Alawite villages that had been previously captured by the rebels in Eastern Hama province, after rebel forces retreated from the area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lorientlejour.com/article/817254/syrie-larmee-reprend-le-controle-de-2-localites-a-majorite-alouite-a-hama.html |title=Syrie: l'armée reprend le contrôle de 2 localités à majorité alouite à Hama |publisher=Lorientlejour.com |date= |accessdate=2013-06-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Door: redactie 1/06/13 - 21u27&nbsp;&nbsp;Bron: Belga |url=http://www.hln.be/hln/nl/960/Buitenland/article/detail/1644196/2013/06/01/Syrische-leger-herovert-twee-plaatsen-in-Hama.dhtml |title=Syrische leger herovert twee plaatsen in Hama |publisher=Hln.be |date= |accessdate=2013-06-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.facebook.com/syriaohr/posts/376091249165886 |title=Hama province |publisher=Facebook.com |date= |accessdate=2013-06-04}}</ref>

On 5 June, rebel forces withdrew from al-Qusayr, and the Syrian military and its allies took full control of the town.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22781667 | title=Qusair capture changes Syria conflict dynamics | publisher=BBC | date=5 June 2013}}</ref> The following day, government forces captured the nearby village of Dabaa.

On 6 June, rebels attacked and temporarily captured the [[Quneitra]] border crossing which links the Israeli-occupied [[Golan Heights]] with the rest of Syria. However, the same day, government forces counter-attacked with tanks and armoured personnel carriers, recapturing the crossing.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22795655 Syria conflict: Army 'retakes Golan Heights crossing']</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/06/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html | title=Israeli tanks move to Golan Heights' border | publisher=CNN | date=6 June 2013}}</ref>

On 7 June, Syrian troops backed by Hezbollah captured two villages north of al-Qusayr: Salhiyeh and Masoudiyeh.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.businessweek.com/ap/2013-06-07/rebels-attack-air-base-in-northern-syria | title=Syrian troops capture central villages from rebels | publisher=Bloomberg | date=7 June 2013}}</ref> The next day, they captured the village of Buwaydah, the last rebel-held village in the al-Qusayr region.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/government-troops-clash-with-rebels-as-they-push-on-with-offensive-in-syrian-heartland/2013/06/08/7e721d96-d015-11e2-8573-3baeea6a2647_story.html | title=Car bomb explodes in central Syrian city as government troops press offensive | publisher=Washington Post | date=8 June 2013}}</ref>

Between 7 and 14 June, Army troops, government militiamen, and reportedly Hezbollah fighters, launched operations in the province of Aleppo. Over a one-week period, government forces had advanced both in Aleppo city and the countryside around the city, pushing back the rebels. However, on 14 June, according to an opposition activist, the tide had started reversing, after rebels managed to halt an armoured reinforcement column from Aleppo city for two government-held Shiite villages northwest of the city. As of 16 June, the rebels had been holding back the column for two days. Rebels claimed of being able to destroy one tank and kill 20 government soldiers northwest of the town of Maaret al-Arteek. Before the column was stopped, government forces had captured the high ground at Maaret al-Arteek, threatening rebel positions. Government forces did also manage to make some advances in the southern part of Aleppo province, capturing the village of Ain-Assan village.<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/16/us-syria-crisis-aleppo-idUSBRE95F0BA20130616 Rebel brigades check loyalist advances in Aleppo: opposition]</ref><ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/17/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE95G0MR20130617 Putin, Obama face off over Syria; rebels get Saudi missiles]</ref> During the fighting in Aleppo city itself, on 13 June, government forces managed to temporarily advance into the rebel-held Sakhour district from two directions, but were soon repelled.<ref>[http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2013/Jun-14/220378-russia-says-us-claims-of-syria-chemical-arms-use-unconvincing.ashx#axzz2WBwwgFSb US aid would boost rebels: Syrian rebel chief]</ref> Some described it as just simply another skirmish or possibly a probing attack and not a full assault.<ref>[http://www.dnaindia.com/world/1848703/report-rebels-await-storm-and-dream-of-us-arms Rebels await storm and dream of US arms]</ref>

On 10 June, Shia pro-government fighters from the village of Hatla, east of Deir al-Zour, attacked a nearby rebel position, killing four rebels.<ref name=Hatla>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/activists-syrian-rebels-attack-village-in-countrys-east-killing-dozens-of-local-shiites/2013/06/12/a050c7e8-d32e-11e2-b3a2-3bf5eb37b9d0_story.html Syrian rebels attack village in country’s east, killing dozens of local Shiites, activists say]</ref> The next day, in retaliation for the attack, thousands of rebels attacked and captured the village, killing 60 residents, fighters and civilians, according to SOHR.<ref>{{cite news|title=Reports of 'massacre' in eastern Syria|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/06/201361294148169694.html|newspaper=Al Jazeera|date=12 June 2013}}</ref> 10 rebel fighters were killed during the attack.<ref name=Hatla/>

At dawn on 13 June, rebels seized an Army position on the northern edge of the town of Morek, which is located on the strategic north-south highway,<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syrian-rebels-gain-control-of-a-key-military-base-in-hama-8656872.html Syrian rebels 'gain control' of a key military base in Hama]</ref> in fighting that killed six soldiers and two rebels. Later in the day, the Army shelled the base and sent reinforcements in an attempt to recapture the post.<ref>[http://news.ninemsn.com.au/world/2013/06/13/07/17/syria-helicopter-raid-gets-lebanon-warning Syria rebels seize key army position]</ref><ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jun/13/death-toll-syrian-conflict-93000 Confirmed death toll in Syrian conflict nearly 93,000, says UN]</ref><ref>[http://www.salon.com/2013/06/13/syrian_rebels_fight_for_key_army_base/ Syrian rebels fight for key army base]</ref>

On 14 June, the Al Nusra front captured a military barracks near Idlib city, after three days of fighting.<ref>[https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/nownews/syrian-rebels-seize-idlibs-military-barracks Syrian rebels seize Idlib’s military barracks]</ref>

On 15 June, the Syrian Army captured the Damascus suburb of Ahmadiyeh near the city's airport. Rebels said fighting began after rebels entered the town to use it as a position to launch mortars on the Damascus airport. They added that fighting was ongoing.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian troops capture Damascus suburb near airport|url=http://news.yahoo.com/syrian-troops-capture-damascus-suburb-near-airport-135233418.html|date=15 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian troops push forward with offensive against rebels, seizing Damascus suburb near airport |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrian-troops-capture-damascus-suburb-near-airport-days-after-attack-on-the-facility/2013/06/15/37f93486-d5c3-11e2-ab72-3f0d51ec1628_story.html|date=17 June 2013}}</ref>

On 23 June, the Syrian Army captured the rebel stronghold town of [[Talkalakh]]. Following the assault, 39 local leaders of the Free Syrian Army surrendered and handed over their weapons. The Syrian opposition denied the town had fallen and claimed there was still fighting ongoing however reporters on the ground said there was no sign of it.<ref>{{cite news|title=
Tal Kalakh: The Syrian town that lost the will to fight - The once rebel stronghold is back in the hands of the Syrian army |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/tal-kalakh-the-syrian-town-that-lost-the-will-to-fight-8673695.html|date=25 June 2013}}</ref>

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== Advanced weaponry and tactics ==
{{see also|Equipment of the Syrian Army|List of military equipment used by Syrian opposition forces}}

===Chemical weapons===
{{Main|Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian civil war}}

Syria is thought to have the world's third-largest stockpile of chemical weapons, and opposition forces are concerned that the regime may use them as a last resort to retain power.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/worries-intensify-over-syrian-chemical-weapons/2012/09/06/13889aac-f841-11e1-8253-3f495ae70650_story_1.html |title=Worries intensify over Syrian chemical weapons|work=The Washington Post|date=6 September 2012|accessdate=18 September 2012}}</ref> In August 2012, the United States warned that the use of such weapons was a "red line" for the Ba'athist regime, and would result in "enormous consequences" if crossed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-19319446|title=Obama warns Syria chemical weapons use may spark US action|publisher=BBC News|date= 23 August 2012|accessdate=18 September 2012}}</ref> Similarly, France and the United Kingdom have warned of severe consequences for the use of chemical weapons, with France in particular promising a "massive and blistering" response.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.yahoo.com/france-warns-syrian-chemical-weapons-attack-081735822.html|title=France warns of Syrian chemical weapons attack|agency=Associated Press|publisher=Yahoo!|date=3 September 2012|accessdate=18 September 2012}}</ref>

Allegations that chemical weapons have been used in Syria first began to emerge on 23 December 2012, when [[Al Jazeera]] released unconfirmed reports that a gas attack killed 7 civilians in the rebel-held al-Bayyada neighbourhood of Homs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Gas used in Homs leaves seven people dead and scores affected, activists say|url=http://blogs.aljazeera.com/topic/syria/gas-used-homs-leaves-seven-people-dead-and-scores-affected-activists-say|publisher=Al Jazeera|accessdate=14 April 2013|date=24 December 2012}}</ref>

On 19 March 2013, new unconfirmed reports surfaced that [[SCUD]] missiles armed with chemical agents may have been fired into the Khan al-Asal district in Aleppo and the Al Atebeh suburbs of Damascus, with both sides accusing each other of carrying out the attack.<ref>{{cite web|last=Chulov|first=Martin|title=Syria attacks involved chemical weapons, rebels and regime claim|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/mar/19/syria-rocket-attacks-chemical-weapons|publisher=The Guardian|accessdate=13 April 2013|date=19 March 2013}}</ref>

On 13 April, ''[[The Times]]'' reported that British military scientists have found forensic evidence of chemical weapons being used in the conflict, after examining a soil sample smuggled out of Syria.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chemical weapons used in Syria, according to British newspaper sources|url=http://www.euronews.com/2013/04/13/chemical-weapons-used-in-syria-according-to-british-newspaper-sources/|publisher=Euronews|accessdate=14 April 2013|date=13 April 2013}}</ref>

An 23 April 2013 the New York Times reported that the British and French governments had sent a confidential letter to the United Nations Secretary General, claiming that there was evidence that the Syrian government had used chemical weapons in Aleppo, Homs, and perhaps Damascus. Israel also claimed that the Syrian government had used chemical weapons on 19 March near Aleppo and Damascus.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/24/world/middleeast/israel-says-syria-has-used-chemical-weapons.html|title=Israel Says Syria Has Used Chemical Weapons|publisher=New York Times|date=24 April 2013}}</ref> By 25 April the U.S intelligence assessment was that the Assad regime had likely used chemical weapons – specifically [[sarin gas]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Matthew Weaver and Tom McCarthy |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/middle-east-live/2013/apr/25/syria-rebels-claim-proof-of-chemical-weapons-live |title=Liveblog: Chuck Hagel says Syria used chemical weapons on 'small scale' &#124; World news &#124; guardian.co.uk |publisher=Guardian |date=2013-04-25 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> However, the White House announced that "much more" work had to be done to verify the intelligence assessments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-04-29/obama-aide-says-more-work-needed-to-verify-syria-chemical-use.html|title=Carney Says More Work Needed to Verify Syria Chemical Use|date=29 April 2013|accessdate=2013-05-01}}</ref> Syria has refused an investigation team from the UN from entering Syria, though Jeffrey Feltman, UN under-secretary for political affairs, said on Wednesday that a refusal would not prevent an inquiry from being carried out.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria crisis: UN to study soil samples for proof of sarin gas|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/apr/24/syria-un-soil-sarin-gas|newspaper=Guardian|date=24 April 2013}}</ref>

On 29 April, another chemical attack was reported, this time in Saraqib, in which 2 died and 13 were injured. The injured were taken to Turkey. On 5 May, Turkish doctors confirmed that no traces of sarin had been found in the blood samples of victims.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/middle-east/syria/130505/syria-chemical-weapons-obama-red-line-turkey-idlib-aleppo-sarin-israel |title=Turkish doctors say no nerve gas in Syrian victims' blood |publisher=GlobalPost |date=2013-05-05 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

After clandestinely spending two months in Jobar, Damascus, several reporters for the French news media ''Le Monde'' personally witnessed the Syrian army's use of chemical weapons on civilians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2013/05/27/chemical-war-in-syria_3417708_3218.html |title=Chemical warfare in Syria |publisher=Lemonde.fr |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Martin Chulov in Beirut and Julian Borger |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/may/28/syria-medics-treat-rebels-symptoms-chemical-exposure |title=Syria medics treat hundreds of rebels for 'symptoms of chemical exposure' &#124; World news &#124; guardian.co.uk |publisher=Guardian |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

A U.N. report stated that there are "reasonable grounds" to believe that limited amounts of chemical weapons have been used in at least four attacks in the civil war, but more evidence is needed to determine the exact chemical agents used or who was responsible. Stating that it has not been possible "to determine the precise chemical agents used, their delivery systems or the perpetrator."<ref>http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/06/04/un-report-more-evidence-needed-on-syria-chemical-weapons-allegations/
UN report: More evidence needed on Syria chemical weapons allegations 4 June 2013</ref>

British and French authorities claim to have evidence that Sarin nerve gas has been used in Syria, these findings and evidence have been passed on to the US government. The evidence is largely made up of samples of bodily fluids taken from individuals who claim to have been affected. However both countries admitted that they cannot prove with "100% certainty" their claims.<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jun/04/syria-nerve-agent-sarin-uk-france UK and France claim Syrian attack victims have tested positive for sarin 5 June 2013</ref><ref>http://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/04/world/meast/syria-civil-war France: Sarin gas used in Syria 5 June 2013</ref>

On 30 May, Turkish newspapers reported that Turkish security forces have arrested [[Al-Nusra Front]] fighters in the southern provinces of Mersin and Adana near the Syrian border and confiscated 2&nbsp;kg of sarin gas from them.<ref>http://www.radikal.com.tr/turkiye/sarin_gazi_sonrasi_3_supheli_arac_alarmi-1135662</ref><ref>http://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/?hn=419802</ref><ref>http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/23398827.asp</ref><ref>http://rt.com/news/sarin-gas-turkey-al-nusra-021/</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/news-316966-report-police-foil-al-nusra-bomb-attack-planned-for-adana.html|title=Report: Police foil al-Nusra bomb attack planned for Adana|date=2013-05-30|accessdate=2013-06-19}}</ref> The governor of Adana claimed that the security forces have not found sarin gas but unknown chemicals without further explanation. He further added that the they were not arrested for carrying chemicals but for being al Nusra members. <ref>http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/05/30/us-syria-crisis-turkey-idUSBRE94T0YO20130530/</ref> Russia has asked Turkey for an official explanation.<ref>http://www.todayszaman.com/news-317042-russia-waiting-for-turkeys-explanation-on-sarin-gas-link-in-bomb-attack.html</ref>

On 2 June, Iraq defense ministry claimed that they have intercepted an [[Al-Qaeda in Iraq]] cell working to produce sarin and mustard gas.<ref>http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/06/20136117362322130.html</ref>

On 13 June, the United States announced that there is definitive proof that the Assad government has used limited amounts of chemical weapons on multiple occasions on rebel forces, killing 100 to 150 people.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/14/world/middleeast/white-house-pushes-back-on-bill-clintons-syria-remarks.html?pagewanted=print | title=Syria Has Used Chemical Arms on Rebels, U.S. and Allies Find | work=New York Times | date=13 June 2013}}</ref> [[Sarin]] was the agent used with no proof that the rebels had access to such weapons. Deputy National Security Advisor [[Ben Rhodes]] did not confirm whether this proof showed that Syria had crossed the 'red line' established by President Obama by using chemical weapons. Mr Rhodes stated that: ''"The president has said that the use of chemical weapons would change his calculus, and it has."'' <ref>http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-06-14/us-claims-proof-syria-using-chemical-weapons/4753582 US claims proof Syria using chemical weapons, offers 'military support' to rebels 14 June 2013</ref> Tests conducted by France confirmed the United States conclusions, according to the French government.<ref>http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/world/french-tests-confirm-syrian-regime-used-chemical-weapons/article4783682.ece</ref> Russian Foreign Minister [[Sergei Lavrov]] said that "the accusations of Damascus using chemical weapons put forth by the USA are not backed by credible facts."<ref>http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/la-fg-us-syria-20130615,0,6232574.story Getting U.S. weapons to Syria rebels will take weeks 14 June 2013</ref> Russian foreign minister Sergey Larov stated that it makes no sense for Syrian government to use chemical weapons when the government already maintains a military advantage over the rebel fighters.<ref>http://www.dw.de/russia-expresses-doubts-on-syrias-chemical-weapons-use/a-16885053</ref>

On 22 June the head of UN human rights investigation, [[Paulo Pinheiro]], said the UN could not determine who used chemical weapons in Syria after the evidence had been delivered by the United States, Britain and France. However, the commission reported that there were "reasonable grounds to believe that chemical agents have been used as weapons".<ref>{{cite news|http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/breaking-news/no-proof-who-used-chemical-weapons-un/story-fn3dxix6-1226667946080|title=No proof who used chemical weapons: UN|date=2013-06-22|accessdate=2013-06-25}}</ref>

A chemical weapons attack by the Syrian government in the Zamalka district of Damascus was reported by the Syrian Support Group on 24 June 2013.<ref>{{cite news|title=Two Syrian Chemical Weapons Attacks Reported by Rebels|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-06-24/two-syrian-chemical-weapons-attacks-reported-by-rebels.html|newspaper=Bloomberg|date=24 June 2013}}</ref>

===Cluster bombs===
The Syrian army began using [[cluster bomb]]s in September 2012. Steve Goose, director of the Arms division at Human Rights Watch said “Syria is expanding its relentless use of cluster munitions, a banned weapon, and civilians are paying the price with their lives and limbs,” “The initial toll is only the beginning because cluster munitions often leave unexploded bomblets that kill and maim long afterward.”<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/news/2013/03/16/syria-mounting-casualties-cluster-munitions |title=Syria: Mounting Casualties from Cluster Munitions &#124; Human Rights Watch |publisher=Hrw.org |date=2013-03-16 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

===Scud missile attacks===
In December 2012, the Syrian government began using [[Scud missiles]] on rebel-held towns, primarily targeting Aleppo.<ref>{{cite news|title=Scud Missile Attack Reported in Aleppo|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/23/world/middleeast/scud-missile-aleppo.html?pagewanted=all&_r=1&|newspaper=New York Times|date=February 22, 2013}}</ref> On 19 February, four Scud missiles were fired, three landed in Aleppo city and one on [[Tell Rifaat]] town, Aleppo province. Between December and February, at least 40 Scud missile landings were reported.<ref>{{cite web|author=Sevil Küçükkoşum |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/syria-fired-more-than-40-scud-missiles-in-two-months.aspx?pageID=238&nid=41564 |title=MIDEAST - Syria fired more than 40 Scud missiles in two months |publisher=Hurriyetdailynews.com |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> Altogether, Scud missiles killed 141 people in the month of February.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sly|first=Liz|title=Ballistic missile strikes on Aleppo signal new escalation in Syria war|url=http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-02-26/world/37310124_1_ballistic-missiles-scuds-aleppo|newspaper=Washington Post|date=February 26, 2013}}</ref> The United States condemned the Scud missile attacks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/50927099/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/t/us-condemns-scud-attack-syria-invites-opposition-talks/#.UX05nLWUT6c |title=U.S. condemns Scud attack in Syria, invites opposition for talks - World news - Mideast/N. Africa - Iran |publisher=NBC News |date=2013-02-24 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> On 1 March, a Scud missile landed in Iraq. It is believed that the intention was to hit the Deir Ezzor governate.<ref>{{cite news|last=Weaver|first=Matthew|title=Syria crisis: Scud missile lands in Iraq |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/middle-east-live/2013/mar/01/syria-crisis-kerry-visits-turkey-live|newspaper=The Guardian|date=1 March 2013}}</ref> On 29 March, a Scud missile landed on [[Huraytan|Hretan]], Aleppo, killing 20 and injuring 50.<ref>{{cite news|title=20 dead in Scud missile attack in Syria, activists say|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2013/mar/29/world/la-fg-wn-syria-scud-missile-20130329|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=March 29, 2013}}</ref> On 28 April, a Scud missile landed on Tell Rifaat, killing four, two of them women and two of them children, SOHR reported.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2013/04/28/Missile-fired-on-Syria-town-kills-4-civilians-.html |title=NGO: Missile fired on Syria town kills 4 civilians - Alarabiya.net English &#124; Front Page |publisher=Alarabiya.net English |date=2013-04-28 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> On 3 June a surface to surface missile, not confirmed as a Scud, hit the village of [[Kafr Hamrah]] around midnight killing 26 people including six women and eight children according to [[SOHR]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20130603-syrian-missile-kills-26-village-near-aleppo |title=Syrian missile kills 26 in village near Aleppo 3 June 2013 |publisher=France24.com |date=2012-12-06 |accessdate=2013-06-04}}</ref>

===Suicide bombings===
{{Further|List of bombings during the Syrian civil war}}
Suicide bombings [[December 2011 Damascus bombings|began in December 2011]]; Jabhat al-Nusra has claimed responsibility for 57 out of 70 similar attacks through April 2013.<ref name="AlNusraDaraa" /><ref name="LWJDamascusBombing">{{cite web|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2013/04/suicide_bomber_kills_77.php|title=Suicide bomber kills 16 in Syrian capital|date=8 April 2013|accessdate=2013-04-28}}</ref> Targeting government officials, the bombings have claimed numerous civilian casualties.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/09/world/middleeast/syria-explosion-damascus.html|title=Wider Use of Car Bombs Angers Both Sides in Syrian Conflict|date=2013-04-08|accessdate=2013-04-28|newspaper=New York Times}}</ref>

===Thermobaric weapons===

[[Thermobaric weapons]], also known as "fuel-air bombs," may have been used by the government side during the Syrian civil war. Since 2012, rebels have claimed that the Syrian Air Force (government forces) is using thermobaric weapons against residential areas occupied by the rebel fighters, such as during the [[Battle of Aleppo (2012–13)|Battle of Aleppo]] and also in [[Kafr Batna]].<ref>http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4266902,00.html</ref><ref>http://www.firstpost.com/topic/place/syria-dropping-thermobaric-bombs-on-residential-areas-in-syria-nov-video-cdd0LNnTD88-15-1.html</ref> A panel of United Nations human rights investigators reported that the Syrian government used thermobaric bombs against the rebellious town of Qusayr in March 2013.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/05/world/middleeast/un-panel-reports-increasing-brutality-by-both-sides-in-syria.html?pagewanted=all</ref>

==Non-state parties in the conflict==

===Shabiha===
{{main|Shabiha}}

The ''Shabiha'' are unofficial pro-government militias drawn largely from Assad's [[Alawite]] minority group. Since the uprising, the Syrian government has frequently used ''shabiha'' to break up protests and enforce laws in restive neighborhoods.<ref name="Organized crime">{{cite web|last=Asher|first=Berman|title=Criminalization of the Syrian Conflict|url=http://www.understandingwar.org/article/criminalization-syrian-conflict|work=Institute for the Study of War|accessdate=27 October 2012}}</ref> As the protests escalated into an armed conflict, the opposition started using the term ''shabiha'' to describe any civilian Assad supporter taking part in the government's crackdown on the uprising.<ref name="Shabiha">[http://www.lb.boell.org/downloads/Yassin_al-Haj_Saleh-The_Syrian_Shabiha_and_Their_State.pdf The Syrian Shabiha and Their State]. (PDF).</ref> The opposition blames the ''shabiha'' for the many violent excesses committed against anti-government protesters and opposition sympathizers,<ref name="Shabiha"/> as well as looting and destruction.<ref name=Harpers>{{cite web |url=http://harpers.org/archive/2011/06/hbc-90008111 |title=The Two Homs |last=Adorno |first=Esther |date=8 June 2011 |work=Harper's Magazine |accessdate=22 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/15/us-syria-idUSTRE78D3HV20110915|title=Armored Syrian forces storm towns near Turkey border|first=Khaled Yacoub|last=Oweis|agency=Reuters|date=15 September 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012|location=Amman}}</ref> In December 2012, the ''shabiha'' were designated a terrorist organization by the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/12/11/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html |title=U.S. blacklists al-Nusra Front fighters in Syria |publisher=CNN |accessdate=17 December 2012}}</ref>

[[Bassel al-Assad]] is reported to have created the ''shabiha'' in the 1980s for the government use in times of crisis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentID=20120515124158 |title=Bashar Al-Assad's transformation |work=Saudi Gazette |date=15 May 2012 |accessdate=6 July 2012}}</ref> ''Shabiha'' have been described as "a notorious Alawite paramilitary, who are accused of acting as unofficial enforcers for Assad's regime";<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tnr.com/article/world/93286/syria-assad-shabbiha-sectarianism|title=Assad's Devious, Cruel Plan to Stay in Power By Dividing Syria—And Why It's Working|first=Oliver|last=Holmes |date=15 August 2011|work=TNR}}</ref> "gunmen loyal to Assad",<ref name=r452011>{{cite news|agency=Reuters|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/04/us-syria-assad-alawites-idUSTRE7433X620110504|title=Analysis: Assad retrenches into Alawite power base|date=4 May 2011}}</ref> and "semi-criminal gangs {{sic|hide=y|comprised| of}} thugs close to the regime".<ref name=r452011/> Despite the group's image as an Alawite militia, some ''shabiha'' operating in Aleppo have been reported to be Sunnis.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/03/us-syria-aleppo-idUSTRE81213720120203 |title=Uprising finally hits Syria's "Silk Road" city |agency=Reuters |date=3 February 2012 |accessdate=18 August 2012|first=Khaled Yacoub|last=Oweis}}</ref>

In 2012, the Assad regime created a more organized official militia known as the [[Jaysh al-Sha'bi]], allegedly with help from Iran and Hezbollah. As with the ''shabiha'', the vast majority of Jaysh al-Sha'bi members are Alawite and Shi'ite volunteers.<ref name=guardianfeb13>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/feb/12/iran-hezbollah-milita-networks-syria "Iran and Hezbollah build militia networks in Syria, officials say"]. ''[[The Guardian]]''. 12 February 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2013.</ref><ref name=miamiherald>[http://www.miamiherald.com/2013/02/19/3242833/pro-assad-militia-now-key-to-syrian.html "Pro-Assad militia now key to Syrian government’s war strategy"]. ''[[Miami Herald]]''. 19 February 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2013</ref>

===Hezbollah===
{{main|Hezbollah}}
General Secretary Nasrallah denied Hezbollah had been fighting on behalf of the Syrian government, stating in a 12 October 2012 speech that "right from the start the Syrian opposition has been telling the media that Hezbollah sent 3,000 fighters to Syria, which we have denied".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabamericannews.com/news/index.php?mod=article&cat=ArabWorld&article=6018 |title=Drone flight over Israel: Nasrallah’s latest surprise |publisher=Arabamericannews.com |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

However, according to the Lebanese ''[[The Daily Star (Lebanon)|Daily Star]]'' newspaper, Nasrallah said in the same speech that Hezbollah fighters helped the Syrian government "retain control of some 23 strategically located villages [in Syria] inhabited by Shiites of Lebanese citizenship". Nasrallah said that Hezbollah fighters have died in Syria doing their "jihadist duties".<ref>{{cite news|last=Hirst|first=David|title=Hezbollah uses its military power in a contradictory manner|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Opinion/Commentary/2012/Oct-23/192380-hezbollah-uses-its-military-power-in-a-contradictory-manner.ashx#axzz2AJrVn2Ik|newspaper=The Daily Star|location=Beirut|date=October 23, 2012}}</ref>

In 2012, Hezbollah fighters crossed the border from Lebanon and took over eight villages in the [[Al-Qusayr District]] of Syria.<ref name=alarabiya17feb13>[http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2013/02/17/266843.html "Hezbollah fighters, Syrian rebels killed in border fighting"]. [[Al Arabiya]], 17 February 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2013.</ref>

Former secretary general of Hezbollah, Sheikh Sobhi Tfaili, confirmed in February 2013 that Hezbollah was fighting for the Syrian army.<ref>{{cite web|author=<!--[if IE 6]> <![endif]--> |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2013/02/26/268422.html |title=Hezbollah fighters killed in Syria will ‘go to hell,’ says former leader |publisher=Alarabiya.net |date=2013-02-26 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

On 12 May 2013, Hezbollah, with the Syrian army, attempted to retake part of Qusayr.<ref name="Hezbollah in Q 2013">{{cite news | title=Hezbollah Aids Syrian Military In a Key Battle | date=20 May 2013 | agency=The New York Times | author=ANNE BARNARD and HWAIDA SAAD; Anne Barnard and Hwaida Saad reported from Beirut. Hala Droubi contributed reporting from Riyadh, Saudi Arabia}}</ref> By the end of the day, 60 percent of the city, including the municipal office building, were under pro-Assad forces.<ref name="Hezbollah in Q 2013"/> In Lebanon, there have been "a recent increase in the funerals of Hezbollah fighters" and "Syrian rebels have shelled Hezbollah-controlled areas."<ref name="Hezbollah in Q 2013"/>

As of 14 May 2013, Hezbollah fighters were reported to be fighting alongside the Syrian army, particularly the Homs province.<ref name="eating a human heart" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrian-army-fighting-alongside-hezbollah-guerrillas-launch-assault-on-rebel-stronghold/2013/05/19/7da48428-c09b-11e2-ab60-67bba7be7813_story.html |title=Syrian army, fighting alongside Hezbollah guerrillas, launch assault on rebel stronghold |publisher=The Washington Post |date=2013-05-19 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref><ref name="shiites in hez">{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/01/world/middleeast/nasrallah-warns-that-hezbollah-is-ready-to-come-to-syrias-aid.html?_r=0 | title=Leader of Hezbollah Warns It Is Ready to Come to Syria’s Aid | publisher=The New York Times | date=30 April 2013 | accessdate=2013-05-14 | author=ANNE BARNARD and HANIA MOURTADA}}</ref> and Hassan Nasrallah has called on Shiites and Hezbollah to protect the shrine of Sayida Zeinab.<ref name="shiites in hez" /> President Bashar al-Assad denied in May 2013 that there were foreign fighters, Arab or otherwise, to be fighting for the government in Syria.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/05/2013519124646578835.html |title=Syrian offensive on Qusayr deepens - Middle East |publisher=Al Jazeera English |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

On 25 May 2013, Nasrallah announced that Hezbollah is fighting in the [[Syrian Civil War]] against [[Islamist|Islamic]] extremists and "pledged that his group will not allow Syrian militants to control areas that border Lebanon".<ref name="Hezbollah 2013">{{cite news | url=http://news.yahoo.com/hezbollah-chief-says-group-fighting-syria-162721809.html | title=Hezbollah chief says group is fighting in Syria | agency=Associated Press | date=25 May 2013 | accessdate=2013-05-25 | author=MROUE, BASSEM}}</ref> He confirmed that Hezbollah was fighting in the strategic Syrian town of Qusair on the same side as [[Assad]]'s forces.<ref name="Hezbollah 2013"/> In the televised address, he said, "If Syria falls in the hands of America, Israel and the [[takfiris]], the people of our region will go into a dark period."<ref name="Hezbollah 2013"/>

===Free Syrian Army===
{{main|Free Syrian Army}}
[[File:FSA soldiers in truck moving.jpg|thumb|right|Free Syrian Army fighters being transported by pick up truck]]

The Free Syrian Army (FSA) is the main armed opposition in Syria. Its formation was announced in late July 2011 by a group of defecting [[Syrian Army]] officers. In a video, the men called upon Syrian soldiers and officers to defect to their ranks, and said the purpose of the Free Syrian Army was to defend civilian protesters from violence by the state.<ref name=worldtribune1>{{cite news |work=The World Tribune |url=http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/WTARC/2011/me_syria0973_08_03.asp |title=Defecting troops form 'Free Syrian Army', target Assad security forces |accessdate=13 November 2011 }}</ref> Many Syrian soldiers subsequently deserted to join the FSA.<ref>{{cite news |title=Free Syrian Army Partners with Opposition: What's Next for Syria? |first=Daniel |last=Torvov |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/articles/259730/20111202/syria-assad-free-syrian-army-sanctions.htm |work=International Business Times |date=2 December 2011 |accessdate=28 September 2012}}</ref> The actual number of soldiers who defected to the FSA is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 1,000 to over 25,000 by December 2011.<ref>{{cite news|last=Blomfield|first=Adam|title=Syrian rebels strike heart of Damascus|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/8902832/Syrian-rebels-strike-heart-of-Damascus.html|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=21 November 2011}}</ref> The FSA functions more as an umbrella organization than a traditional military chain of command, and is "headquartered" in Turkey. As such, it cannot issue direct orders to its various bands of fighters, but many of the most effective armed groups are fighting under the FSA's banner.

As deserting soldiers abandoned their armored vehicles and brought only light weaponry and munitions, FSA adopted [[guerilla]]-style tactics against regime security forces in urban areas. Its primary target has been the [[Shabiha]] militias; most FSA attacks are directed against trucks and buses that are believed to carry security reinforcements. Sometimes, the occupants of government vehicles are taken as [[hostage]]s, while in other cases the vehicles are attacked either with [[Improvised explosive device|roadside bombs]] or with hit-and-run attacks. The FSA has also targeted [[Overhead power line|power lines]] and [[Water supply network|water mains]] in "retaliation against Hezbollah's provocations".<ref>[http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/michaelweiss/100134187/hezbollah-launched-rockets-into-syria-says-free-syrian-army/ Hezbollah's secret war on Syrian rebels]. ''Daily Telegraph''. 2 February 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2013.</ref> To encourage defection, the FSA began attacking army patrols, shooting the commanders and trying to convince the soldiers to switch sides. FSA units have also acted as defense forces by guarding neighborhoods with strong opposition presences, patrolling streets while protests take place, and attacking Shabiha members. However, the FSA also engaged in street battles with security forces in [[Deir ez-Zor]], Al-Rastan, and [[Abu Kamal]]. Fighting in these cities raged for days, with no clear victor. In Hama, Homs, Al-Rastan, Deir ez-Zor and Daraa in late 2011, the Syrian military used airstrikes against them, leading to calls from the FSA for the imposition of a [[no-fly zone]] by Western powers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/news/124717/syrian-opposition-calls-for-no-fly-zone.html |title=Syrian Opposition Call for No-Fly Zone |work=Turkish Weekly|date=8 October 2011 |accessdate=13 November 2011}}</ref>

More than 3,000 members of the Syrian security forces had been killed by May 2011, which the Syrian government stated was due to "armed gangs" among the protesters. However, the opposition blamed the deaths on the government.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/07/world/middleeast/07syria.html| work=The New York Times | first=Anthony | last=Shadid | title=Protests Across Syria Despite Military Presence | date=6 May 2011}}</ref> Syrians have been crossing the border to Lebanon to buy weapons on the [[black market]] since the beginning of the protests.<ref>{{cite news|first=Mona|last=Alami |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/05/201151410154606644.html |title=As Arab Spring continues, black markets boom|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=14 May 2011 |accessdate=12 June 2011}}</ref> Clan leaders in Syria claim that the armed uprising is of a tribal, revenge-based nature, not Islamist.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/middle-east/tribal-justice-blamed-for-deaths-of-120-syrian-police-and-soldiers|title=Tribal justice blamed for deaths of 120 Syrian police and soldiers|first=Phil|last=Sands|work=The National |accessdate=1 February 2012|date=17 May 2011}}</ref> On 6 June, the government said more than 120 security personnel were killed by "armed gangs"; 20 in an ambush, and 82 in an attack on a security post.<ref>{{cite news|last=Karouny |first=Mariam |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/06/us-syria-ambush-idUSTRE7553AI20110606|title=Syria to send in army after 120 troops killed |agency=Reuters |date= 6 June 2011|accessdate=12 June 2011}}</ref> The main centers of unrest have been described as being predominately Sunni Muslim towns and cities close to the country's borders where smuggling has been common for generations, and thus have more access to smuggled weapons.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2011/0609/Has-Syria-s-peaceful-uprising-turned-into-an-insurrection/(page)/2 |title=Has Syria's peaceful uprising turned into an insurrection?|first=Nicholas|last=Blanford|work=The Christian Science Monitor|date=9 June 2011}}</ref>

Daniel Byman believes the political and military opposition are each worryingly divided and disconnected from each other,<ref>{{cite news |last= Byman |first= Daniel |date= 10 February 2012 |title= Can we help Syria without making things worse? |url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/can-we-help-syria-without-making-things-worse/2012/02/08/gIQAD6HJ4Q_story.html |work=The Washington Post|accessdate=7 July 2012 }}</ref> and thus uniting, training and pushing the armed opposition to avoid religious sectarianism is crucial. The latter is important, for otherwise the Alawites and other minorities will fight all the harder, and make post-Assad Syria more difficult to govern.<ref>{{cite web |last= Byman |first= Daniel |date= 2 February 2012 |title= Finish Him: Why the World Needs to Take Out Bashar al-Assad Now |url= http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/02/02/finish_him_assad_syria |work=Foreign Policy|accessdate=7 July 2012 }}</ref> Others would say that part of Byman's analysis represents a failure to understand that the leadership within Syria is decentralised out of necessity, that this is a good thing, and that decentralisation is not the same thing as fragmentation, and certainly does not represent an absence of strong leadership.<ref name="FP fox">{{cite web |last= O'Bagy |first= Elizabeth |date= 29 June 2012 |title= Disorganized Like a Fox |url= http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/06/29/disorganized_like_a_fox |work=Foreign Policy|accessdate=10 July 2012 }}</ref> Whichever view one accepts, there are undeniably rivalries between different strands and disagreement between those advocating peaceful protests and those backing armed struggle.<ref>{{cite news |last= Solomon |first= Erika |date= 27 April 2012 |title= Rebel rivalry and suspicions threaten Syria revolt |url= http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/27/us-syria-rebels-idUSBRE83Q0S120120427 |agency= Reuters |accessdate=11 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1= Blair |first1= Edmund |last2= Saleh |first2= Yasmine |date= 4 July 2012 |title= Syrian opposition rifts give world excuse not to act |url= http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/07/04/224514.html |agency= Reuters |accessdate=10 July 2012 }}</ref>

In the Spring of 2013, there were reports of many defections from the Free Syrian Army to Al Nusra, due to lack of weapons. Free Syrian Army fighters complained about the lack of western help, and cited Al Nusra as an organization which could effectively provide weaponry needs for their fighters. One estimate put the amount of defections to al Nusra as high as 25% of the FSA.<ref>{{cite news|title=Free Syrian Army rebels defect to Islamist group Jabhat al-Nusra|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/may/08/free-syrian-army-rebels-defect-islamist-group|newspaper=The Guardian|date=8 May 2013}}</ref>

In May 2013, [[Salim Idriss]], one of the FSA leaders, acknowledged that rebels were badly fragmented and lacked the military skill needed to topple the government of President Bashar Assad. He said it was difficult to unify rebels because many of them were civilians and only a few of them had military service. Idriss said he was working on a countrywide command structure, but that a lack of material support was hurting that effort. He pointed out shortage of ammunition and weapons, fuel for the cars and money for logistics and salaries. “The battles are not so simple now,” Idriss said. “At the beginning of the revolution, they had to fight against a checkpoint. They had to fight against a small group of the army. Now they have to liberate an air base. Now they have to liberate a military school. Small units can’t do that alone, and now it is very important for them to be unified. But unifying them in a manner to work like a regular army is still difficult." He denied any cooperation with Jabhat al-Nusra but acknowledged common operations with another Islamist group [[Ahrar al-Sham|Ahrar ash-Sham]]. In April the US announced it would transfer $123 million of aid through his group.<ref name="McClatchySalimIdriss">{{cite web|url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2013/05/07/190602/syrian-rebel-leader-salim-idriss.html|title=Syrian rebel leader Salim Idriss admits difficulty of unifying fighters|date=2013-05-07|accessdate=2013-05-09}}</ref>

===Jabhat al-Nusra===
{{main|Jabhat al-Nusra}}
The al-Nusra Front, being the biggest [[jihadism|jihadist]] group in Syria, is often considered to be the most aggressive and violent part of the opposition.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9716545/Inside-Jabhat-al-Nusra-the-most-extreme-wing-of-Syrias-struggle.html|title=Inside Jabhat al Nusra – the most extreme wing of Syria's struggle|date=2 December 2012|accessdate=2013-04-25}}</ref> Being responsible for over 50 [[suicide bombing]]s, including several deadly explosions in Damascus in [[2011 Damascus bombings|2011]] and [[10 May 2012 Damascus bombings|2012]], it is recognized as a terrorist organization by Syrian government and was designated as such by United States in December 2012.<ref name="AlNusraDaraa" /><ref name="LWJDamascusBombing" />

In April 2013, the leader of the [[Islamic state of Iraq]] released an audio statement announcing that Jabhat al-Nusra is its branch in Syria.<ref name="globalpost">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130409/qaeda-iraq-confirms-syrias-nusra-part-network|title=Qaeda in Iraq confirms Syria's Nusra is part of network|date=9 April 2013|accessdate=9 April 2013|work=[[Agence France-Presse]]}}</ref> The leader of Al Nusra, Abu Mohammad al-Golani, said that the group will not merge with the Islamic state of Iraq, but still maintain allegiance to [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]], the leader of [[al-Qaeda]].<ref name="naharnet">{{cite news|url=http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/78961-al-nusra-commits-to-al-qaida-deny-iraq-branch-merger/|title=Al-Nusra Commits to al-Qaida, Deny Iraq Branch 'Merger'|date=10 April 2013|accessdate=10 April 2013|agency=[[Agence France Presse]]}}</ref>

The relationship between the Front and the indigenous Syrian opposition is tense, even though Jabhat al-Nusra has fought alongside the FSA in several battles. The Mujahideen's strict religious views and willingness to impose [[Sharia|sharia law]] disturbed many Syrians.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/with-wary-eye-syrian-rebels-welcome-islamists-into-their-ranks/|title=With wary eye, Syrian rebels welcome Islamists into their ranks|date=25 October 2012|accessdate=28 January 2013}}</ref> Some rebel commanders have accused foreign jihadists of "stealing the revolution", robbing Syrian factories and displaying religious intolerance.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jan/17/syria-crisis-alqaida-fighters-true-colours|title=Syria crisis: al-Qaida fighters revealing their true colours, rebels say|last=Chulov|first=Martin|date=17 January 2013|accessdate=26 January 2013|work=The Guardian}}</ref>

The estimated manpower of Jabhat al-Nusra is approximately 6,000–10,000 people, mostly foreign fighters.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/post-partisan/post/al-qaeda-affiliate-playing-larger-role-in-syria-rebellion/2012/11/30/203d06f4-3b2e-11e2-9258-ac7c78d5c680_blog.html|title=Al-Qaeda affiliate playing larger role in Syria rebellion|date=30 November 2012|accessdate=2013-04-25}}</ref><ref name="GuardianForeignFighters" />

===Political groups===
[[File:Syrian National Coalition Members 11-11-2012 (Press photo).jpg|thumbnail|right|Coalition members in [[Doha]]. In center, president [[Moaz al-Khatib|al-Khatib]], along with VPs [[Riad Seif|Seif]] and [[Suheir Atassi|Atassi]], as well as all [[Syrian National Council|SNC]] chairmen [[Burhan Ghalioun|Ghalioun]], [[Abdulbaset Sieda|Sieda]] and [[George Sabra|Sabra]].]]
====Syrian National Council====
{{main|Syrian National Council}}
Formed on 23 August 2011, the National Council is a coalition of anti-government groups, based in Turkey. The National Council seeks the end of Bashar al-Assad's rule and the establishment of a modern, civil, democratic state. SNC has links with the [[Free Syrian Army]].

In November 2012, the council agreed to unify with several other opposition groups to form the [[National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces|Syrian National Coalition]]. The SNC has 22 out of 60 seats of the Syrian National Coalition.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian opposition groups reach unity deal|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2012/11/11/syrian-opposition-deal/1697693/|newspaper=USA Today|date=11 November 2012}}</ref>

====Syrian National Coalition====
{{main|National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces}}
On 11 November 2012 in Doha, the National Council and other opposition forces united as the [[National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces]].<ref name="usatoday1">{{cite web|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2012/11/11/syrian-opposition-deal/1697693/|title=Syrian opposition groups reach unity deal |work=USA Today |date=11 November 2012|accessdate=14 November 2012}}</ref> The following day, it was recognized as the legitimate government of Syria by numerous Persian Gulf states. Delegates to the Coalition's leadership council are to include women and representatives of religious and ethnic minorities, including Alawites. The military council will reportedly include the Free Syrian Army.<ref>{{cite news|author=Jim Muir |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20295857 |title=Syria crisis: Gulf states recognise Syria opposition |publisher=BBC|date=12 November 2012 |accessdate=14 November 2012}}</ref>

The main aims of the National Coalition are replacing the [[Bashar al-Assad]] government and "its symbols and pillars of support", "dismantling the security services", unifying and supporting the [[Free Syrian Army]], refusing dialogue and negotiation with the al-Assad government, and "holding accountable those responsible for killing Syrians, destroying [Syria], and displacing [Syrians]".<ref>{{cite web| title =The National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces| publisher =[[Local Coordination Committees of Syria]] | date =12 November 2012 | url =http://www.lccsyria.org/10488| accessdate =2012-11-20 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6CIpu8And |archivedate=19 November 2012 |deadurl=no }}</ref>

====National Coordination Committee====
{{main|National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change}}

The National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change (NCC) is a Syrian bloc consisting of 13 left-wing political parties, among which is the Kurdish [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|PYD]]. The NCC is a bloc taking position in between SNC and pro-government movements, and has a left-leaning political profile.

The NCC differs from the Syrian National Coalition on two main points of strategy:

# The NCC refuses to accept foreign military intervention, although it does accept various forms of support for the opposition and supports Arab League involvement in the conflict.
# It tries to maintain a pacifist stance in relationship to the Syrian government, opposing the sectarianism of which both the FSA and pro-government militias have been accused.

Despite having endorsed the [[Free Syrian Army]] on 23 September 2012, the FSA has dismissed the NCC as an extension of the government, stating that "this opposition is just the other face of the same coin".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.trust.org/alertnet/news/damascus-meeting-calls-for-peaceful-change-in-syria|title=Damascus meeting calls for peaceful change in Syria|work=Reuters UK|date=23 September 2012|accessdate=23 September 2012}}</ref> The Coordination Committee, unlike the [[Syrian National Council]], believed that the solution was to keep the current Syrian government, and hoped to resolve the current crisis through dialogue, in order to achieve "a safe and peaceful transition from a state of despotism to democracy".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://english.al-akhbar.com/content/syrian-opposition-still-weak-and-divided|title=Syrian Opposition Still Weak and Divided|work=Al Akhbar|date=18 October 2011|accessdate=13 November 2011}}</ref> Despite since changing its stance of the continuation of the Assad government in some kind of transitional capacity, the NCC has held onto its policy of opposing all foreign intervention, but has previously suggested the group would find the [[United Nations Supervision Mission in Syria]] acceptable.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.presstv.ir/detail/2012/08/15/256297/initiative-unrest-syria/|title= New initiative presented to solve unrest in Syria|work=PressTV|date=15 August 2012|accessdate=16 August 2012}}</ref>

==Sectarianism and minorities==
{{main|Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian civil war}}
[[File:Syria Ethno-religious composition..jpg|thumb|Map of Syria's ethno-religious composition in 1976]]

===Sectarianism===
Both the opposition and government have accused each other of employing sectarian agitation. The successive governments of Hafez and Bashar al-Assad have been closely associated with the country's minority [[Alawite]] sect of Islam, whereas the majority of the population, and thus most of the opposition, is [[Sunni]], lending plausibility to such charges, even though both leaderships claim to be secular.

The government has also been widely accused of fomenting sectarian hatred against the opposition.<ref>{{cite news|first=Cliff|last=May |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2097761,00.html |title=Syrian Refugees: Itching for a Fight with Assad and His Regime |work=Time|date=25 October 2011 |accessdate=28 December 2011}}</ref> Analysts describe Assad's use of force to displace Sunni populations as a form of ethnic cleansing.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/TheAssadRegime-web.pdf | publisher=ISW | date=March 2013 | page=19| title=The Assad Regime}}</ref> In a March 2012 [[Time magazine|''TIME'']] report, an anti-Assad activist claimed that the Syrian government had paid government workers to write anti-Alawite graffiti and chant sectarian slogans at opposition rallies.<ref name=timewar>{{cite news| url=http://globalspin.blogs.time.com/2012/03/01/eyewitness-from-homs-an-alawite-refugee-warns-of-sectarian-war-in-syria/|title=Eyewitness from Homs: An Alawite Refugee Warns of Sectarian War in Syria|first=Aryn|last=Baker|work=Time|date=1 March 2012|accessdate=24 April 2012}}</ref> Alawites who have taken refugee at the coast and in the Alawite mountains as well as in Lebanon have also told journalists that they were offered money by the Syrian government to spread sectarianism through chants and graffiti.<ref name=timewar/>

At the uprising's outset, some protesters reportedly chanted sectarian threats such as "Christians to Beirut; Alawites to the coffin".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/on-faith/syrian-christians-live-in-uneasy-alliance-with-bashar-assad/2012/05/15/gIQAlSjsRU_story.html |title=Syrian Christians live in uneasy alliance with Bashar Assad |work=The Washington Post |date=15 May 2012 |accessdate=10 December 2012}}</ref> Some prominent opposition groups (such as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]]) have a religious basis which has been seen as threatening to Syria's Alawite and Christian minorities. Smaller opposition factions, such as the [[Al-Qaeda]]<nowiki>-affiliated</nowiki> [[jihadist]] [[Al-Nusra Front]], take explicitly sectarian positions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arabnews.com/news/448122|title=Al-Nusra-Al-Qaeda links ‘serve Assad regime’|publisher=ArabNews|date=15 April 2013|accessdate=20 April 2013}}</ref> There are reports of incidents in which rebel forces engaged in sectarian violence, such as burning Shi'ite mosques.<ref>{{cite news | title=Sunni Syrian rebels burn Shiite Mosque|date=14 December 2012|work=The Daily Star}}</ref>

In mid-2012, the fear of rising sectarian anger against the Alawite community led to speculation of a re-creation of the 1920s-era [[Alawite State]] as a safe haven for Assad and the leadership should Damascus finally fall. [[Latakia Governorate|Latakia]] and [[Tartus Governorate|Tartus provinces]] both have Alawite-majority populations, and historically constituted the territory of the Alawite State between 1920 and 1936.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/25/syria-conflict-breakaway-alawite-state_n_1703624.html |title=Syria Conflict: Breakaway Alawite State May Be President Bashar Assad's Last Resort |work=Huffington Post|date=25 July 2012 |accessdate=18 August 2012}}</ref> Around the same time, Christians living in Aleppo started to arm themselves, many with the help of the Syrian government. Christian groups expressed fears that Islamist rebels would persecute them, as had happened to Christians in Iraq during the [[Iraq War]].<ref name=Global>{{Cite news|title=Inside Syria: Aleppo's Christians arm against Islamists |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/middle-east/syria/120731/aleppo-christians-islamists-jihadis-al-qaeda-iraq-sectarian-conflict |work=Global Post |date=31 July 2012 |accessdate=31 July 2012}}</ref>

In December 2012, UN human rights investigators stated that there had been "a clear shift" in the nature of the conflict since the beginning of the year, with more fighters and civilians on both sides describing the civil war in ethnic or religious terms. The investigators claimed that, sectarian divides have deepened, as "ethnic and religious minority groups have increasingly aligned themselves with parties to the conflict", raising the possibility of reprisal killings and prolonged violence that could last for years after the government falls.<ref name="UNSectarian">{{cite news|work=Reuters|title=U.N. warns of foreign influx into sectarian Syria war|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/12/20/us-syria-crisis-un-idUSBRE8BJ0LI20121220|date=20 December 2012|accessdate=28 January 2013}}</ref>

As for April 2013, the secular motives of the initial protests have been almost totally displaced by growing Islamist influence. In rebel-held areas the courts staff consists of clerics and lawyers applying Sharia, while the military command has also been filled with officers willing to infuse Islamic law into a future government. As [[New York Times]] reporters related, ''"nowhere in rebel-controlled Syria is there a secular fighting force to speak of."'' Jabhat al-Nusra fighters put back oil fields staff to work and took control of Aleppo's bakeries and flour distribution.<ref name="NYTNowhereSectarian">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/28/world/middleeast/islamist-rebels-gains-in-syria-create-dilemma-for-us.html|title=Islamist Rebels Create Dilemma on Syria Policy|date=27 April 2013|accessdate=2013-04-28}}</ref> However, experts say that hard-line Islamists make up only 8,000 of the 140,000 rebel force.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabnews.com/news/448027 |title=Al-Nusra pledge gives a lifeline to Syria regime |publisher=ArabNews |date=2013-04-14 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Mckirdy |first=Andrew |url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/04/14/world/al-nusras-al-qaida-vow-boosts-assad/#.UX0_t7WUT6c |title=Al-Nusra's al-Qaida vow boosts Assad |publisher=Japantimes.co.jp |date=2013-04-14 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> With the NPR reporting that Islamist only make up a small fraction of the opposition.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kelemen |first=Michele |url=http://m.npr.org/news/front/166677649 |title=NPR.org » U.S., Russia Try To Find Common Ground On Syria |publisher=M.npr.org |date=2012-12-06 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

In response to the May 2, 2013 alleged [[Bayda and Baniyas massacres|Baniyas massacre]], the Turkish government accused the Syrian government of ethnic cleansing, citing the killings of Sunnis in Baniyas as such.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2013/05/08/Turkey-claims-Syria-carrying-out-ethnic-cleansing/UPI-95691368027175/?spt=hts&or=4 |title=Turkey equates Syrian siege to Srebrenica ethnic cleansing |publisher=UPI.com |date=2013-05-08 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

===Kurds===
{{main|2012 Syrian Kurdistan conflict}}
{{See also|Syrian Kurdistan}}
{{West Kurdistan towns}}
[[File:PYD supporters.PNG|thumb|right|Kurds showing their support for the PYD in Afrin during the conflict]]
[[Kurds]] – mostly [[Sunni]] Muslims, with a small minority of [[Yezidi]]s – represented 10% of Syria's population at the start of the uprising in 2011. They had suffered from decades of discrimination and neglect, being deprived of basic civil, cultural, economic, and social rights. Additionally, since 1962, they and their children had been denied Syrian nationality, leading to a widespread inability to seek employment in the public sector.<ref name="OHCHR Sep11" />{{rp|7|date=December 2012}} When protests began, Assad's government finally granted citizenship to an estimated 200,000 stateless Kurds, in an effort to try and neutralise potential Kurdish opposition.<ref name="HRW Kurds">{{cite web |last= Muscati |first= Samer |date= 14 May 2012 |title= Syrian Kurds Fleeing to Iraqi Safe Haven |url= http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/05/14/syrian-kurds-fleeing-iraqi-safe-haven |publisher= Human Rights Watch |accessdate=30 June 2012 }}</ref> This concession, combined with Turkish endorsement of the opposition and Kurdish under-representation in the Syrian National Council, has resulted in Kurds participating in the civil war in smaller numbers than their Syrian Arab counterparts.<ref name="HRW Kurds"/> Consequently, violence and state repression in Kurdish areas has been less severe.<ref name="HRW Kurds"/> In terms of a post-Assad Syria, Kurds reportedly desire a degree of autonomy within a decentralised state.<ref>{{cite news |last1= Blair |first1= Edmund |last2= Saleh |first2= Yasmine |date= 4 July 2012 |title= Syria opposition rifts give world excuse not to act |url= http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/07/04/uk-syria-crisis-rifts-idUKBRE8630IY20120704 |agency= Reuters |accessdate=9 July 2012 }}</ref>

In 2012, several cities with large Kurdish populations, such as [[Qamishli]] and [[Al-Hasakah]], began witnessing large-scale protests against the Syrian government. The government responded by sending in tanks and firing upon the protesters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/article-39557-Syrian-police-open-fire-on-Kurdish-rally |title=Syrian police open fire on Kurdish rally |work=The News|date=13 March 2012|accessdate=10 April 2012}}</ref> However, the head of the [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Kurdish Democratic Union Party]] (PYD), Salih Muslim, stated in July 2012 that he did not support either the government or the opposition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/4938.html |title=PYD Leader Salih Muslim: Syrian Government Has Lost Control in Kurdish Areas |publisher=Rudaw|accessdate=18 August 2012}}</ref> Kurdish fighters have since clashed with both government and rebel forces.

Since the outset of the civil war, numerous Kurdish political parties have organised themselves into an umbrella organisation, the [[Kurdish National Council]]. Until October 2011, most of these parties were members of the NCC. After October 2011, only the PYD remained in the NCC, holding a more moderate stance regarding the Assad regime.

On 19 July 2012, Kurdish militias from the PYD and Kurdish National Council forced out government forces from several areas, including the town of [[Ayn al-Arab]] (known as Kobanê in Kurdish). Kurdish militias then denied access to the FSA, whose fighters approached upon hearing of the Kurdish victory, arguing that Kurds could take care of Kurdish areas alone. Nuri Brimo, a spokesperson for the PYD, announced that the liberation of Kobane was the beginning of a battle for the whole of Syrian Kurdistan and its autonomy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/4977.html |title=Political Groups to Run Liberated Kurdish Cities in Syria Through Joint Committee |publisher=Rudaw|date=20 July 2012 |accessdate=18 August 2012}}</ref>

Some in the opposition claimed that the [[PKK]], a Kurdish separatist group in Turkey, is helping the Syrian government in the conflict. However, [[Murat Karayilan]], the leader of the PKK, denied such claims, stating that the Kurds in Syria do not support either side and desire both neutrality and autonomy.<ref>{{cite news|title=Al Jazeera speaks with PKK rebel leader|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/video/middleeast/2012/10/2012101355149836141.html|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=13 October 2012}}</ref> In February 2013, Arab rebels and Kurdish fighters in northern Syria agreed to a peace deal, ending months of hostilities.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=57093 | title=Syria Islamist-Kurd hostilities end after Kilo's mediation | work=Middle East Online | date=20 February 2013}}</ref>

Iraqi and Syrian Kurds established control over their own regions with the help of the Turkish-based [[Kurdistan Workers' Party]] and the Kurdistan Regional Government in [[Irbil]], under President [[Massoud Barzani]].<ref name=Kurd-Shiite-Sunni-Split>{{cite web|title=INSIGHT: Iraq's Tensions Heightened by Syria Conflict|url=http://middleeastvoices.voanews.com/2012/11/insight-iraqs-tensions-heightened-by-syria-conflict-96791/|work=Voice of America|accessdate=3 November 2012|author=Paul Salem|date=29 November 2012}}</ref> The Syrian Kurdish enclave has been fighting westward to secure an outlet to the [[Mediterranean Sea]], between the northern part of the [[Alawite State|Alawi region]] and the Syrian border with Turkey.<ref name="Kurd-Shiite-Sunni-Split" />

===Palestinians===
The reaction of the approximately 500,000 [[Palestinian refugees|Palestinians living in Syria]] to the conflict has been mixed.<ref name="NYT syria france">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/10/world/middleeast/syria-criticizes-frances-support-of-rebels.html|title=Syria Criticizes France for Supporting Rebels, as Fears Grow of Islamist Infiltration|last=Kirkpatrick|first=David D.|date=9 September 2012|work=The New York Times|accessdate=11 September 2012}}</ref> Syria's Palestinian community largely remained neutral in the early days of the uprising.<ref name="NYDN">[http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/clashes-ease-damascus-article-1.1224353 "War in Syria: Clashes ease at Damascus Palestinian refugee camp"]. [[Associated Press]] via ''[[Daily News (New York)|Daily News]]''. 20 December 2012. Retrieved 15 March 2013.</ref> Ongoing government attacks and shelling have caused any pro-government sympathies among the Palestinians in Syria to dwindle severely.<ref name="NYT syria france"/> According to the UN, 75% of the Palestinians in Syria have been affected by the uprising, and more than 600 of them have been killed.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21566708-syrias-palestinian-refugees-are-being-both-thumped-and-cold-shouldered-stateless Stateless and hapless as ever]. ''The Economist''. 17 November 2012.</ref> Although many Palestinians are appreciative of the civil rights given to them by the Syrian government, in comparison to other Arab states, these same rights have allowed the younger generation of Palestinians to be "raised essentially as Syrians" who "find it hard not to be swept up in the fervor on the streets", according to the ''New York Times''.<ref name="Nordland"/>

While major Palestinian factions such as [[Hamas]] have turned against the Syrian government, other groups, particularly the [[PFLP-General Command]] (PFLP-GC), have remained supportive. The PFLP-GC has been accused by pro-rebel Palestinians of actively participating in the conflict as secret police in the refugee camps.<ref name="Nordland">{{cite news |last1= Nordland |first1= Rod |last2= Mawad |first2= Dalal |date= 30 June 2012 |title= Palestinians in Syria Are Reluctantly Drawn into Vortex of Uprising |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/01/world/middleeast/palestinians-in-syria-drawn-into-the-violence.html |work=The New York Times |accessdate=1 July 2012 }}</ref> In late October 2012, pro-rebel Palestinians formed the so-called Storm Brigade with the task of wresting control of the Yarmouk Camp in Damascus from pro-government groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2012/Oct-31/193365-syria-rebels-bring-fight-to-pro-assad-palestinians.ashx#axzz2Ay3P8JUC |title=Syria rebels bring fight to pro-Assad Palestinians|work=The Daily Star |date=31 October 2012 |accessdate=14 November 2012}}</ref>

In May 2013, the PFLP announced that it would be forming combat units in an attempt to "recapture" Israeli-occupied territory, in particular the [[Golan Heights]]. Hezbollah and the Assad government offered tacit support to the plan.<ref name="golanattack">{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Palestinian-Syrian-group-forming-units-to-fight-for-Golan-312820|title=Palestinians, Syrians form units to fight for Golan}}</ref>

==Foreign reaction and involvement==

===International reaction===
{{main|International reactions to the Syrian civil war}}
[[File:Esther Brimmer Speaks at Human Rights Council Urgent Debate on Syria (3).jpg|thumb|[[Esther Brimmer]] speaks at [[United Nations Human Rights Council|Human Rights Council]] urgent debate on Syria, February 2012]]
The conflict in Syria has received significant international attention. The [[Arab League]], [[European Union]], the United Nations,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/2011318231622114396.html |title=UN chief slams Syria's crackdown on protests |publisher=Al Jazeera|date=18 March 2011}}</ref> and many Western governments condemned the Syrian government's violent response to the protests, and many expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise [[free speech]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jj7uSbIAaro1v0fwW4jziIxQ1j9w?docId=CNG.a807bd69f3debaa7a6b4ca2383f9500b.1191 |title=Canada condemns violence in Yemen, Bahrain, Syria |agency=Agence France-Presse |publisher=Google News |date=21 March 2011 |accessdate=22 March 2011}}</ref>
Initially, many Middle Eastern governments expressed support for Assad, but they switched sides as the death toll mounted. Both the Arab League and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] suspended Syria's membership.

In June 2012 UN Action Group on Syria met in Geneva and agreed on [[Kofi Annan peace plan for Syria|a six-point plan]] that would lead to free elections in Syria, with a transitional government including members of Assad's administration and the opposition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/infocus/Syria/press.asp?NewsID=1236&sID=41|title=Concluding remarks by Joint Special Envoy Kofi Annan at the Meeting of Action Group on Syria – Geneva|date=30 June 2012|accessdate=2013-04-30}}</ref> However, the draft resolution, proposed soon after by Russia, was rejected by Western countries as lacking pressure and not demanding that Assad would step down in the first place. Russia and China never agreed with such provision.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/07/11/225676.html|title=Russia drafts new U.N. resolution to extend Syria mission as death toll mounts|date=11 July 2012|accessdate=2013-04-30}}</ref>

The US and its NATO allies have pressed for al-Assad's departure. The draft eventually put under vote by [[United Nations Security Council|UNSC]] called Assad to stop use of heavy weapons in urban areas and withdraw his forces, or face sanctions. It was vetoed by Russia and China, as having "uneven content intended to put pressure on only one party."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10000872396390444097904577536793560681930.html|title=Russia, China Veto Syria Resolution at U.N.|date=19 July 2012|accessdate=2013-04-30}}</ref><ref name="aljazeera1">{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/12/20121210104312760502.html |title=Syria rebels 'seize key Aleppo army base' |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=10 December 2012 |accessdate=11 December 2012}}</ref> Russian officials stated that plans for Syria's political future should not be forced on it from outside<ref name="aljazeera1"/> and claimed that "terrorists" are present within the opposition's ranks.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20111003/167347814.html |title=Russia urges Syrian opposition to end violence |agency=RIA Novosti |date=3 October 2011 |accessdate=20 January 2012 }}</ref> In December 2012, the Russian deputy foreign minister, [[Mikhail Bogdanov]], claimed Syria's government was "progressively losing control" and that "the victory of the Syrian opposition cannot be excluded", although the Russian Foreign Ministry insisted soon after that the country had not changed its position on Syria and "never will".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20724959|title=Russia's stance on Syria 'will not change' |publisher=BBC|date=14 December 2012|accessdate=15 December 2012}}</ref> Iran, a longtime ally of Syria, has consistently expressed support for Assad.<ref name="NYT Topic: Syria" />

UN Secretary-General [[Ban Ki-moon]] stated that giving further arms to either side "would not be helpful".<ref name="reuters.com">http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/14/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE95C16L20130614 U.S. considers no-fly zone after Syria crosses nerve gas 'red line' 14 June 2013</ref>

On 15 June Egyptian President [[Mohammed Morsi]] announced that he was severing diplomatic relations between Syria and Egypt, closing the Egyptian embassy in Damascus and ordering Syria to close its own embassy in Cairo.<ref>http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2013/06/15/syria-egypt-fighting.html Egypt cuts relations with Syria, shuts embassy 15 June 2013</ref> On 24 June the Syrian foreign minister Walid Al-Moualem said that Syria would attend peace talks, not to transfer power but to form "a broad national unity government".<ref>http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/06/2013624103717706232.html Syria: Peace talks not for transferring power 24 June 2013</ref>

On 25 June 2013, the foreign minister of Saudi Arabia accused the Assad government of committing [[genocide]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Saudi Arabia accuses Syria of 'genocide'|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/06/201362520311476606.html|newspaper=Al Jazeera|date=25 June 2013}}</ref>

===Military incidents with neighboring countries===
{{main|Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war}}

====Incidents at Syrian-Turkish border====
{{further|June 2012 interception of Turkish aircraft|2012 Syrian–Turkish border clashes|May 2013 Reyhanli bombing}}
During the 5 December 2011 night, about 35 armed fighters tried to cross the border of Syria from Turkey, but were engaged immediately by the Syrian border forces who inflicted several wounds to them and were able to repel them back to Turkey. Once they were back on Turkish soil, the Turkish army allegedly picked them up in trucks and took care of the injured fighters. A further attempt happened during the night of 12 December, when 15 infiltrators tried again to cross the border. They were unsuccessful and two of them were killed by Syrian border patrols

On 22 June 2012, Syrian air defenses [[June 2012 interception of Turkish aircraft|shot down]] a Turkish [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|F-4 Phantom]] fighter jet,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/06/22/222135.html |title=Turkey confirms Syria shot down F-4 military jet, search for pilots ongoing |publisher=Al Arabiya |date=22 June 2012 |accessdate=6 July 2012}}</ref> and both pilots were killed.<ref>{{cite news |title= Bodies of Turkish jet crew shot down by Syria found |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18707069 |publisher=BBC News |date= 4 July 2012 |accessdate=4 July 2012 }}</ref> The incident significantly raised tensions between the two countries.<ref name="NYT Topic: Syria" />

Tensions were further raised later that year in October, when Syrian mortar rounds began [[landing]] in Turkish territory. On 3 October, a Syrian mortar shell hit the Turkish town of [[Akçakale]], killing 5 civilians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4288211,00.html |title=Mortar from Syria kills 5 family members in Turkey|publisher=Ynetnews|date=3 October 2012 |accessdate=14 November 2012}}</ref> Turkey responded by shelling Syrian army positions along the border.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4288276,00.html |title=Turkey strikes targets inside Syria after mortar attack|publisher=Ynetnews|date=4 October 2012 |accessdate=14 November 2012}}</ref> Throughout October, Syrian mortar shells repeatedly landed in Turkish territory, and the Turkish military launched retaliatory artillery and mortar strikes, firing into Syria a total of 87 times. These attacks reportedly killed 12 Syrian soldiers and destroyed several tanks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4294544,00.html |title=Report: Turkish retaliatory fire has killed 12 Syrian soldiers|publisher=Ynetnews|date=20 October 2012 |accessdate=14 November 2012}}</ref>

During 2013, two deadly bombings took place on the Syria-Turkish border. In the first event in On February 11, 2013, a bomb exploded at the Turkısh-Syrian border crossing in [[Cilvegözü]], killing 14.<ref>"The brave Syrian risking his life to help kids like this cross the border." Independent.ie. April 10, 2013. Accessed April 14, 2013. http://www.independent.ie/world-news/middle-east/the-brave-syrian-risking-his-life-to-help-kids-like-this-cross-the-border-29185757.html</ref> On May 11, 2013, a car bomb [[May 2013 Reyhanli bombing|exploded]] in the Turkish border city of Reyhanli, killing at least 40 and injuring over 100.

====Incident at Syrian-Israeli border====
{{main|Quneitra Governorate clashes (2012–present)}}
In late 2012, tensions between [[Israel]] and Syria escalated. On 25 September, several mortar shells landed in the [[Israeli-occupied territories|Israeli-occupied]] [[Golan Heights]] region, landing in an open area adjacent to the border fence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4285819,00.html |title=Mortar shells land in northern Golan Heights|publisher=Ynetnews|date=25 September 2012 |accessdate=14 November 2012}}</ref> Overall, throughout October and early November 2012, several Syrian mortar and light artillery shells hit the Golan Heights. One mortar round may have been responsible for a [[brush fire|brushfire]] that erupted in the area. On 3 November, three Syrian tanks entered the [[demilitarized zone]] in the central Golan Heights as a number of mortar shells were fired into the area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4300606,00.html |title=3 Syrian tanks enter demilitarized zone in Golan Heights|publisher=Ynetnews|date=3 November 2012 |accessdate=14 November 2012}}</ref> On 5 November, an Israeli army jeep was damaged by Syrian army gunfire as it patrolled the border.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4301538,00.html |title=IDF jeep hit by Syrian gunfire; none injured|publisher=Ynetnews|date=5 November 2012 |accessdate=14 November 2012}}</ref>

====Iraqi-Syrian border incident====
{{main|Akashat ambush}}
The [[Akashat ambush]] was a well planned assault against a [[Syrian Army]] convoy defended by Iraqi soldiers that took place on 4 March 2013, as the group was travelling in the province of [[Al Anbar Governorate|Anbar]], next to the border with Syria. The [[Islamic State of Iraq]] claimed responsibility for the ambush on March 11.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/03/201331114024632648.html |title=Al-Qaeda claims killing Syrian troops in Iraq |publisher=Antiwar.com |date=2013-03-11 |accessdate=2013-03-11}}</ref> In the clashes, 51 Syrian soldiers killed.<ref name="WSJ">{{cite news | url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887324281004578352640821817264.html | title=Islamists Try to Tighten Grip on Syria Regions | work=Wall Street Journal | date=10 March 2013}}</ref><br> Another 9 Iraqi soldiers were killed as well from insurgent fire. The attackers carried unknown casualties.

====Jordanian-Syrian border incidents====
A number of clashes and incidents took place on Jordanian Syrian border since the beginning of civil war, mostly involving Jordanian Army and Syrian Army, but occasionally also the Syrian rebels.

On 22 October 2012, a Jordanian soldier died in a gunfight between Jordanian troops and Islamic militants attempting to cross the border into Syria. Sameeh Maaytah, the Information Minister of Jordan, said the soldier was the first member of the Jordanian military to be killed in clashes connected to the civil war in Syria.<ref name="Jordan soldier killed" />

====Lebanese-Syrian border incidents====
{{main|Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon}}
At the beginning of summer 2012, two Hezbollah fighters were killed in a clash with Syrian rebels who were on Lebanese territory.<ref name="increases">{{cite web|url=http://www.northjersey.com/news/international/171434781_Hezbollah_Increases_Support_for_Syrian_Regime__U_S__and_Lebanese_Officials_Say__Beirut_.html?c=y&page=1 |title=Hezbollah Increases Support for Syrian Regime, U.S. and Lebanese Officials Say (Beirut) |publisher=Northjersey.com |date=2012-09-26 |accessdate=2012-12-25}}</ref>

On 17 September, [[Syria]]n [[Ground-attack aircraft]] fired three missiles {{convert|500|m|ft}} over the border into Lebanese territory near [[Arsal]]. It was suggested that the jets were chasing rebels in the vicinity. The attack prompted Lebanese [[president]] [[Michel Sleiman]] to launch an investigation, whilst not publicly blaming Syria for the incident.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/09/18/syrian-jets-hit-lebanese-territory-near-border/#ixzz27JvfB9lg |title=FOX News, Syrian jets hit Lebanese territory near border, 18 September 2012 |publisher=Foxnews.com |date=2012-09-18 |accessdate=2012-12-25}}</ref>

On 22 September, a group of armed members of the [[Free Syrian Army]] attacked a border post near [[Arsal]]. This was reported to be the second incursion within a week. The group were chased off into the hills by the [[Lebanese Army]], who detained and later released some rebels due to pressure from dignified locals. Michel Sleiman praised the actions taken by the military as maintaining Lebanon's position being “neutral from the conflicts of others". He called on border residents to “stand beside their army and assist its members.” [[Syria]] has repeatedly called for an intensified crackdown on rebels that it claims are hiding in Lebanese border towns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Politics/2012/Sep-23/188927-lebanese-president-praises-army-response-to-fsa-attack.ashx#ixzz27JxWSuyo |title=(Lebanon), Lebanese president praises Army response to FSA attack, 23 September 2012 |publisher=The Daily Star |date= |accessdate=2012-12-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2012/09/22/rebeldes-sirios-atacan-un-puesto-del-ejercito-en-territorio-de-libano/ |title=Rebeldes sirios atacan un puesto del Ejército en territorio de Líbano, CNN Espanol, Alkhshali Hamdi, Amir Ahmed, Mohammed Tawfeeq, Ben Brumfield and Joe Sterling, 22 September 2012 |publisher=Cnnespanol.cnn.com |date= |accessdate=2012-12-25}}</ref>

====Alleged Israeli airstrikes in Rif Dimashq====
{{Main|January 2013 Rif Dimashq airstrike|May 2013 Rif Dimashq airstrikes}}
On 30 January 2013, about ten jets [[January 2013 Rif Dimashq airstrike|bombed]] a convoy believed to be carrying Russian-made [[SA-17]] anti-aircraft missiles to Lebanon. The attack, attributed to Israeli airforce, did not result in any counterattacks from Syria, although Syria has said it reserves the right to retaliate.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria Says It Has Right to Counterattack Israel|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/01/world/middleeast/syrias-confirmation-of-airstrike-may-undercut-israels-strategy-of-silence.html?_r=0|newspaper=New York Times|date=January 31, 2013}}</ref> Western intelligence sources reported that Iranian general [[Hassan Shateri]] had been killed in the airstrike. Iran acknowledged his death at the hands of the Israelis without further details.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/world_news/Middle_East/article1220354.ece|title=Israel on global alert after killing Iran’s fox|date=2013-02-24|accessdate=2013-05-06}}</ref> Israel refused to comment on its alleged involvement.

News organizations reported that Israel allegedly [[May 2013 Rif Dimashq airstrikes|attacked]] Syria on the night between 2 and 3 May 2013. US officials said that the Israeli war planes shot into Syria from Lebanese air space, and that the warplanes did not enter Syrian air space. No counter-attacks by Syria were reported at any front, and the Syrian ambassador to the UN said that he was not aware of any attacks on Syria by Israel. Israel either didn't make any comment.

News sources reported a set of massive explosions in [[Damascus]] on the night of 4–5 May 2013. Syrian state media described this as an "Israeli rocket attack", with the targets including a military research center of the Syrian government in [[Jamraya]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22417482|title='Israel rockets' hit Jamraya facility in Damascus|publisher=BBC News|date=5 May 2013|accessdate=5 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/05/world/middleeast/israel-syria.html|title=Israel Targeted Iranian Missiles in Syria Attack|publisher=New York Times|author=ANNE BARNARD, MICHAEL R. GORDON and JODI RUDOREN|date=4 May 2013|accessdate=5 May 2013}}</ref> The ''Daily Telegraph'' reported anonymous Israeli sources as confirming that this was an Israeli attack on Iranian-made guided missiles allegedly intended to be shipped to Hezbollah.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/10038315/Israel-confirms-overnight-airstrikes-against-Damascus.html|title=Israel confirms overnight airstrikes against Damascus|author=Damien McElroy and agencies|publisher=Daily Telegraph|date=5 May 2013|accessdate=5 May 2013}}</ref> The [[Syrian Observatory for Human Rights]], an opposition monitoring group based in Britain, said at least 42 Syrian soldiers were killed in the strikes.<ref>{{cite news|title='No winds of war' despite Damascus air strikes|date=May 7, 2013|newspaper=Jerusalem Post|url=http://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/No-winds-of-war-despite-alleged-Syria-air-strikes-312290}}</ref>

===Military support===
{{main|Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war}}

====Support for the opposition====
[[File:US Patriot Missiles near Gaziantep 01.PNG|thumb|right|U.S. soldiers maintaining Patriot missile batteries near Gaziantep, Turkey in February 2013]]
Turkey, once an ally of Syria, has condemned Assad over the violent crackdown and has requested his departure from office. In October 2011, Turkey began sheltering the Free Syrian Army, offering the group a safe zone and a base of operation. Together with Saudi Arabia and Qatar, Turkey has also provided the rebels with arms and other military equipment.<ref name=ft-20130516/> After Syria had [[June 2012 interception of Turkish aircraft|shot down a Turkish warplane]] and both countries had [[2012 Syrian–Turkish border clashes|exchanged fire across the border]], Turkey requested American [[Patriot missile]] batteries to help defend its borders against possible Syrian aggression; the missiles were delivered by NATO in January 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/22/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE85D0IS20120622|title=Syria downs Turkish jet, Ankara to act decisively|date=22 June 2012|accessdate=2013-04-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/489427/patriot-missile-troops-in-turkey-as-syria-war-worsens/|title=Patriot missile troops in Turkey as Syria war worsens|agency=Agence France-Presse|work=International Herald Tribune|date=5 January 2013|accessdate=5 January 2013}}</ref>

Since 2012, the United States,<ref name="ObamaSupportRebels">{{cite news | url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/08/01/us-usa-syria-obama-order-idUSBRE8701OK20120801 | title=Exclusive: Obama authorizes secret U.S. support for Syrian rebels | date=1 August 2012 | agency=Reuters | accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref> United Kingdom<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19205204 | title=Syria conflict: UK to give extra £5m to opposition groups | date=10 August 2012 |publisher=BBC | accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref> and France<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/50839|title=France Gives 'Non-lethal' Military Aid to Syria Opposition}}</ref> have provided opposition forces with military aid, including weapons, communications equipment, [[body armor]], medical supplies and non-combat [[armored vehicle]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-21684105|title=UK to send armoured vehicles to Syrian opposition|publisher=BBC|date=6 March 2013|accessdate=6 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.sky.com/story/1060916/uk-to-supply-military-aid-to-syria-opposition|title=UK To Supply Military Aid To Syria Opposition|publisher=Sky News|date=6 March 2013|accessdate=9 March 2013}}</ref> The U.K. was also reported to have provided intelligence support from its Cyprus bases, revealing Syrian military movements to Turkish officials, who then pass on the information to the FSA.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.sky.com/story/974300/syria-rebels-aided-by-british-intelligence| title=Syria Rebels 'Aided By British Intelligence' | date=19 August 2012 |publisher=Sky News | accessdate=22 November 2012}}</ref>

It has been also reported that CIA operated along the Turkish-Syrian border, where agents investigated rebel groups, recommending arms providers which groups to give aid to. CIA agents also helped opposition forces to develop supply routes, and provided them with communications training.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702303410404577464763551149048.html | title=U.S. Bolsters Ties to Fighters in Syria | date=13 June 2012 |work=The Wall Street Journal | accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref> The majority of the weapons provided to rebel forces by Saudi Arabia and Qatar have ended up in the hands of hardline [[Jihadism|Islamic jihadists]], who it is feared will create problems elsewhere once the Syrian conflict comes to a close.<ref name=nyt14102012>{{cite news|last=Sanger|first=David|title=Rebel Arms Flow Is Said to Benefit Jihadists in Syria|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/15/world/middleeast/jihadists-receiving-most-arms-sent-to-syrian-rebels.html|accessdate=15 October 2012|work=The New York Times|date=14 October 2012}}</ref>

In spring 2012, Saudi Arabia and Qatar announced they would begin arming and bankrolling the opposition.<ref>{{cite news|last=DeYoung|first=Karen|date=2 March 2012|title=Saudi, Qatari plans to arm Syrian rebels risk overtaking cautious approach favored by U.S|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/saudi-qatari-plans-to-arm-syrian-rebels-risk-overtaking-cautious-approach-favored-by-us/2012/03/01/gIQArWQflR_story.html |work=The Washington Post|accessdate=23 March 2012}}</ref> Paul Salem, director of the Carnegie Middle East Centre in Beirut, and Emile Hokayem of the International Institute of Strategic Studies argued that such support would be unlikely to immediately make a decisive impact.<ref name="Ntnl arms">{{cite news |last= Naylor |first= Hugh |date= 17 May 2012 |title= Syria rebels 'buy arms with Gulf and US help'&nbsp;|url= http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/middle-east/syria-rebels-buy-arms-with-gulf-and-us-help |work= The National |accessdate=30 June 2012 }}</ref> A ship carrying weapons from Libya believed destined for Syria's rebels was intercepted by Lebanon in April 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20120428-lebanon-intercepts-libyan-arms-ship-headed-syrian-rebels-weapons-navy-assad|title=Lebanon halts ship with arms 'destined for Syria'&nbsp;|date=28 April 2012|accessdate=29 April 2012|publisher=France 24}}</ref> In December 2012, Qatar was reported to be shipping arms to Sunni Islamists in Syria as a means of cementing alliances in the Middle East.<ref name="Qatar 6 dec">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/06/world/africa/weapons-sent-to-libyan-rebels-with-us-approval-fell-into-islamist-hands.html|title=U.S.-Approved Arms for Libya Rebels Fell into Jihadis’ Hands|work=The New York Times|date=5 December 2012|author=James Risen|author2=Mark Mazzetti|author3=Michael S. Schmidt|accessdate=28 January 2013}}</ref> The [[Financial Times]] reported that Qatar had funded the Syrian rebellion by "as much as $3 billion" over the first two years, but in May 2013 reported that Saudi Arabia was becoming the main provider of arms to the rebels.<ref name=ft-20130516>{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/86e3f28e-be3a-11e2-bb35-00144feab7de.html |title=Qatar bankrolls Syrian revolt with cash and arms |author=Roula Khalaf and Abigail Fielding Smith |newspaper=Financial Times |date=16 May 2013 |accessdate=3 June 2013}}</ref>

In December 2012, a new wave of weapons from foreign supporters were transferred to rebel forces via the Jordanian border in the country's south. The arms included [[M79 Osa]] anti-tank weapons and M-60 [[recoilless rifle]]s purchased by Saudi Arabia from Croatia. Previously, most of the weapons were delivered via the Turkish border in the north. However, much of the arms unintentionally ended up in the hands of Islamist rebels. The goal for the change in routes was to strengthen moderate rebels and to bring the war closer to Damascus.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/in-syria-new-influx-of-weapons-to-rebels-tilts-the-battle-against-assad/2013/02/23/a6bf2bc0-7dfb-11e2-9073-e9dda4ac6a66_story.html |title=In Syria, new influx of weapons to rebels tilts the battle against Assad |work=Washington Post |date=23 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/26/world/middleeast/in-shift-saudis-are-said-to-arm-rebels-in-syria.html |title=Saudis Step Up Help for Rebels in Syria With Croatian Arms |work=The New York Times |date=25 February 2013}}</ref>

In early March 2013, a Jordanian security source revealed that the United States, Britain, and France were training non-Islamist rebels in Jordan.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/mar/08/west-training-syrian-rebels-jordan |title=West training Syrian rebels in Jordan |work=The Guardian |date=8 March 2013}}</ref> On 22 April 2013 the [[European Union]] lifted its [[embargo]] on Syrian oil to import barrels directly from rebel groups. Several of the oil fields are believed to be under control of Jabhat al-Nusra. Some analysts say the decision might also set up a deadly competition between rebel groups over the resource.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://world.time.com/2013/05/01/can-syrias-rebellion-win-the-war-by-selling-oil/|title=Syria's Opposition Hopes to Win the War by Selling Oil|date=1 May 2013|accessdate=2013-05-05}}</ref>

Since April 2013, Saudi Arabia had began supplying the FSA with limited amounts of shoulder-fired anti-aircraft missiles.<ref>{{cite news|title=Saudi supplying missiles to Syria rebels: Gulf source|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2013/Jun-17/220671-saudi-supplying-missiles-to-syria-rebels-gulf-source.ashx#axzz2WU82vVvI|date=17 June 2013}}</ref> However in June 2013, a gulf source declared that Saudi Arabia had fully equipped rebels with shoulder-fired anti-aircraft missiles without limitations for the first time.<ref>http://uk.news.yahoo.com/putin-obama-face-off-over-syria-rebels-saudi-091726696.html#47gg0AJ</ref>

On 13 June, a government official states that the Obama administration, after days of high-level meetings, has approved providing lethal arms to the Supreme Military Council (SMC).<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2013/06/13/us-confirms-chemical-weapons-syria/2420763/ | title=Source: Obama approves arming Syrian rebels | work=USA Today | date=13 June 2013 | accessdate=2013-06-13}}</ref> The SMC is a rebel command structure that includes representatives from most major rebel groups, and excludes the Islamic extremist elements.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/The-Free-Syrian-Army-24MAR.pdf | title=Free Syrian Army | publisher=ISW | accessdate=2013-06-13}}</ref> The decision was made shortly after the administration has concluded that the Assad government has used chemical weapons on opposition forces, thus crossing the "red line" drew by Obama earlier in 2012.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg-us-syria-20130614,0,16123.story | title=U.S. says Syria used chemical weapons, will send arms to rebels | work=Los Angeles Times | date=13 June 2013 }}</ref> The arms will include small arms and ammunition, and possibly anti-tank weapons.<ref name="NYT2013arms">{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/14/world/middleeast/syria-chemical-weapons.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 | title=U.S. Is Said to Plan to Send Weapons to Syrian Rebels | work=New York Times | date=13 June 2013 | accessdate=2013-06-13}}</ref> However, they will not include anti-aircraft weapons, something repeatedly requested by the armed opposition.<ref name="NYT2013arms"/> Further such weapons would be supplied by the US "on our own timeline".<ref>http://edition.cnn.com/2013/06/13/politics/syria-us-chemical-weapons White House: Syria crosses 'red line' with use of chemical weapons on its people 14 June 2013.</ref>

The Pentagon has proposed a limited [[no-fly zone]] over southern Syria, using F-16s and Patriot missiles, operating from Jordanian airspace. The Russian Foreign Minister [[Sergei Lavrov]] claimed that such a move would be illegal under international law.<ref name="reuters.com"/><ref>news.yahoo.com/u-considers-no-fly-zone-syria-crosses-nerve-005608864.html Syrian jets hit rebels awaiting promised U.S. weapons 15 June 2013</ref><ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/us-intervention-in-syria-must-be-robust/2013/06/14/8a2123d2-d450-11e2-8cbe-1bcbee06f8f8_story.html U.S. intervention in Syria must be robust 15 June 2013</ref> Proponents of the proposal say a no-fly zone could be imposed without a UN Security Council resolution, since the US would not regularly enter Syrian airspace and wouldn't hold Syrian territory.<ref>http://www.theaustralian.com.au/in-depth/middle-east-in-turmoil/jordan-key-to-pentagon-plan-for-no-fly-zone/story-fn7ycml4-1226664091627</ref>

In June 2013 rebels received large shipment of arms from their Gulf allies, including [[Surface-to-air missile|anti-aircraft]] and [[Anti-tank missile|anti-tank]] missiles. The delivery reportedly raised tensions between opposition groups, as most of the shipment had been received by [[Ahrar al-Sham|Ahrar ash-Sham]], an extremist militant group. The anti-tank weapons are reported to have already stalled recent government advances in Daraa province.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mercurynews.com/nation-world/ci_23504307/rivalries-complicate-arms-pipeline-syria-rebels|title=Rivalries complicate arms pipeline to Syria rebels|date=2013-06-20|accessdate=2013-06-21}}</ref> Many of these weapons have come from Libyan stockpiles and have been delivered by Qatari C-17 to Turkey and then distributed to the rebels. Qatari C-17s have made at least three trips this year from Libya directly to Ankara.<ref name="LibyanWeapons">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/22/world/africa/in-a-turnabout-syria-rebels-get-libyan-weapons.html?pagewanted=all|title=In Turnabout, Syria Rebels Get Libyan Weapons|date=2013-06-21|accessdate=2013-06-25}}</ref>

====Support for the Syrian government====
{{see also|Russia's role in the Syrian civil war}}
Russia, whose [[Russian naval facility in Tartus|Tartus naval base]], electronic surveillance facility in [[Latakia]]<ref name=Guardian122412 /> and airbase facilities at [[Tadmur]] (Palmyra)<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/nations/syria/2013/01/25/Syria-Russia-evacuates-nationals-remains-close-Assad_8136864.html|title=Syria: Russia evacuates nationals, remains close to Assad|date=25 January 2013|publisher=ANSAmed|accessdate=27 January 2013|location=Beirut}}</ref> are its only military outposts outside the [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet Union]], has supplied the Syrian government with arms as part of a business contract signed before the uprising began. Most Syrian military equipment, including tanks, missiles, and artillery, was acquired from Russia, which continues sales and technical support.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/feedarticle/10427926 | title=French direct aid a dubious break for Syria rebels | date=7 September 2012 |work=The Guardian | accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref> Russian-built air defense systems and [[surface-to-air missile|anti-aircraft missile]] batteries purchased by Syria have been upgraded through the installation of new equipment and modification of existing systems by Russian suppliers during the civil war; sometimes these installations are manned by Russian [[military adviser]]s.<ref name=Guardian122412>{{cite news|title=Russian military presence in Syria poses challenge to US-led intervention: Advisers deployed with surface-to-air systems bolster President Assad's defences and complicate outcome of any future strikes|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/dec/23/syria-crisis-russian-military-presence|accessdate=24 December 2012|newspaper=The Guardian|date=23 December 2012|author=Julan Borger}}</ref> According to Russian Ground Forces Air Defense commander Major General Alexander Leonov, Syria's Russian-supplied air defenses are sophisticated and effective.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria's ‘No-Nonsense’ Air Defenses Praised by Russian General|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20121222/178330157.html|accessdate=24 December 2012|newspaper=en.rian.ru RIA Novosti|date=22 December 2012|agency=RIA Novosti}}</ref> Overcoming them, as would be required in the event of the threatened military intervention should Syria use chemical weapons, would be a major challenge for U.S. and NATO forces.<ref name=Guardian122412 />

Western diplomats have frequently criticized Russia's behavior, but Russia denied its actions have violated any international law. Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] has claimed that Russia does not support either side.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2012/0601/breaking35.html | title=Russia denies arming Syria | date=1 June 2012 |work=The Irish Times | accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref> However, a Syrian jetliner returning from Moscow in October 2012 was forced to land in [[Ankara]], the Turkish capital, and the [[government of Turkey]] announced hours later that Russian munitions and military equipment had been discovered aboard the aircraft and confiscated.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/12/world/middleeast/syria.html|title=Turkish Premier Says Russian Munitions Were Found on Syrian Jet|date=11 October 2012|accessdate=13 October 2012|work=The New York Times}}</ref> The Russian Foreign Ministry denied that the cargo of the plane was sold to the Syrian military by the Russian government and claimed that its shipping did not violate international sanctions, contrary to the Turkish assertion.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10000872396390444657804578052251394803808.html|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=12 October 2012|accessdate=13 October 2012|title=Russia Says Syria Jet Held Radar Gear}}</ref> Later in October, the Russian military demanded an inquiry into the source of the Syrian rebels' U.S.-made [[Stinger missile|Stinger surface-to-air missiles]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/10/24/us-syria-crisis-stingers-idUSBRE89N1J720121024|title=Not supplying Stinger missiles to Syrian rebels: U.S.|work=Reuters|date=24 October 2012|accessdate=28 January 2013}}</ref> By January 2013, Russia showed "little sign of easing support for the Assad regime" and was "carrying out the largest naval exercises since the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] era off the coast of Syria", though some analysts speculated that this was merely cover to use its warships for large-scale evacuations of its citizens.<ref>{{cite news|author=Loveday Morris |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/russia-to-evacuate-its-own-citizens-from-syria-8460908.html |title=Russia to evacuate its own citizens from Syria |publisher=Independent.co.uk |date=2013-01-21 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref> By May 2013 Russia was reported to have recently sent advanced anti-ship missiles to Damascus, capable of sinking vessels nearly 300 kilometres away. Russia remained 'somewhat enigmatic' about supplies of the S-300 anti-aircraft missile system to Syria. [[Sergei Lavrov]] said Russia was not thinking of selling, but had already concluded a sale.<ref>The National, 18 May 2013 [http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/russia-defends-its-weapons-contracts-with-syria], The Guardian 30 May 2013 [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/may/30/syria-anti-aircraft-missile-system]</ref> However, president Putin said in June that Russia had not yet delivered the arms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.yahoo.com/russias-putin-says-300-missiles-not-yet-sent-110854426.html|title=Russia has not yet sent S-300 missiles to Syria: Putin|date=2013-06-04|accessdate=2013-06-06}}</ref>

Iran, which sees Syria as a key regional ally, has not only provided the Assad regime with arms and technical support, but has also sent combat troops, specifically the [[Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution|Revolutionary Guards]], to support Syrian military operations.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/may/28/syria-army-iran-forces | title=Syrian army being aided by Iranian forces | date=28 May 2012 |work=The Guardian | accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref> Technical support has reportedly included [[unmanned aerial vehicle]]s (a.k.a. 'drones') to guide Syrian military planes and gunners in their bombarding of rebel positions.<ref name=drones>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/10/31/world/meast/syria-drones/index.html|title=Iranian drones guiding Syrian attacks, rebels say|author=Nick Paton Walsh|publisher=CNN|date=31 October 2012}}</ref> It has been reported that Iran also trained personnel from Hezbollah, a militant group based in Lebanon which has deployed pro-Assad fighters to Syria.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://worldtribune.us/2012/07/29/irans-hizbullah-sends-more-troops-to-help-assad-storm-aleppo-fight-sunnis/ | title=Iran's Hizbullah sends more troops to help Assad storm Aleppo, fight Sunnis | date=29 July 2012 |work=World Tribune | accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref> In January 2013, during a prisoner swap between the Syrian rebels and the Assad regime, 48 Iranians were reportedly released by the rebels in exchange for nearly 2,130 prisoners held by the Syrian government. Rebels claimed the captives were linked to the Iranian Revolutionary Guard.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syria and Iran swap prisoners after months of complex international talks|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jan/09/syria-iran-exchange-prisoners|newspaper=The Guardian|date=9 January 2013|accessdate=5 February 2013}}</ref> [[United States State Department]] spokeswoman Victoria Nuland described the Iranians as "members of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard", describing their presence as "just another example of how Iran continues to provide guidance, expertise, personnel, technical capabilities to the Syrian regime."<ref>Ahren, Raphael (10 January 2013). [http://www.timesofisrael.com/foul-weather-strands-freed-iranian-prisoners-in-syria/ "US State Department says men liberated in swap are members of the Revolutionary Guard"]. ''The Times of Israel''. Retrieved 5 February 2013.</ref> In March 2013, Israeli sources alleged that Iran and Hezbollah had built a 50,000-strong joint militia to support Assad.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/mar/14/iran-hezbollah-force-syrian-regime|title=Iran and Hezbollah 'have built 50,000-strong force to help Syrian regime'|work=The Guardian|date=14 March 2013|accessdate=16 March 2013}}</ref> Iraq, located between Syria and Iran, has been criticized by the U.S. for allowing Iran to ship military supplies to Syria over Iraqi airspace.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/05/world/middleeast/iran-supplying-syrian-military-via-iraq-airspace.html| title=Iran Supplying Syrian Military via Iraqi Airspace | date=4 September 2012 |work=The New York Times | accessdate=5 October 2012}}</ref> According to the ''New York Times'', Iranian arms transfers are changing the balance of power in the region, and the civil war has "become a regional contest for primacy in Syria between Sunni Arabs and the Iran-backed Assad government and Hezbollah of Lebanon."<ref name=saudirebels>{{cite news|title=In Shift, Saudis Are Said to Arm Rebels in Syria|newspaper=The New York Times|date=26 February 2013|author=C. J. Chivers|author2=Eric Schmitt|author3=Robert F. Worth|author4=Dan Bilefsky}}</ref> Iran is reportedly using Maharaj Airlines to ship weapons to the Syrian government.<ref name=saudirebels/>

Some analysts have interpreted the Syrian conflict as part of a regional [[proxy war]] between pro-opposition Sunni states, such as Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar, and Iran and Shi'ites in Iraq, who support the [[Alawite]]-led Syrian government.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/02/the-global-dangers-of-syrias-looming-civil-war/252988/ |title=The Global Dangers of Syria's Looming Civil War|first=James|last=Kitfield|work=The Atlantic |date=16 February 2012 |accessdate=22 February 2012}}</ref>

Russian, Eastern European and Iranian civilians have been viewed as legitimate targets by some resistance leaders and forces, a position rejected by the Syrian opposition coalition. At the outbreak of the civil war, there were an estimated 30,000 Russian civilians in Syria, and an additional 30,000 from former Soviet republics such as the Ukraine. Some – such as Anhar Kochneva, a journalist and blogger who was taken prisoner by Syrian rebels, and confessed under pressure that she worked for Russian intelligence – have played a role in support of the Assad regime, but many are civilian workers uninvolved in espionage or military operations.<ref>{{cite news|title=Russian Speakers Become Prey in Syrian Conflict|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/21/world/middleeast/in-syria-kidnapping-of-kochneva-shows-new-danger.html|accessdate=21 December 2012|newspaper=The New York Times|date=20 December 2012|author=Ellen Barry}}</ref>

On 30 April 2013 [[Hasan Nasrallah]], the leader of Hezbollah, declared in a broadcast speech that the Shiite military group would help Assad's government "with its full organizational might" and will not allow Syria "to fall into hands" of America, Israel and Islamic extremists. He warned that any damage made to [[Sayyidah Zaynab Mosque]], an important Shiite shrine near Damascus, could unleash uncontrollable sectarian conflict, similar to one that had happened in Iraq.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/01/world/middleeast/nasrallah-warns-that-hezbollah-is-ready-to-come-to-syrias-aid.html?_r=0|title=Leader of Hezbollah Warns It Is Ready to Come to Syria's Aid|date=30 April 2013|accessdate=2013-05-01}}</ref>

On 11 June President [[Vladimir Putin]] acknowledged that a lack of reforms from the Syrian government may have led to the current strife. He stated on Russian state media that:

''"Syria as a country was rife for some kind of change. And the government of Syria should have felt that in due time and should have undertaken some reform. Had they done that, what we're seeing in Syria today would have never happened."''<ref>{{cite news |title=Vladimir Putin admits Bashar al-Assad responsible for Syrian uprising |first=Richard |last=Spencer |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/10114247/Vladimir-Putin-admits-Bashar-al-Assad-responsible-for-Syrian-uprising.html |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=11 June 2013 |accessdate=20 June 2013}}</ref>

It is reported, from a number of sources, that Iran is sending 4,000 [[Revolutionary Guards]] to fight in Syria.<ref>http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-06-17/iran-to-send-troops-to-support-syrian-regime/4757490 Iran to send 4,000 troops to fight alongside Syrian regime: report 17 June 2013</ref>

====Mujahideen involvement====
[[Mujahideen|Foreign fighters]] have joined the conflict in opposition to Assad. While most of them are jihadists, some individuals, such as [[Mahdi al-Harati]], have joined to support the Syrian opposition.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/30/world/middleeast/as-syrian-war-drags-on-jihad-gains-foothold.html|title=As Syrian War Drags On, Jihadists Take Bigger Role |work=New York Times|date=29 July 2012 |accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref>

The [[The International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence|ICSR]] estimates that 2,000–5,500 foreign fighters have gone to Syria since the beginning of the protests, about 7–11 percent of whom came from Europe. It is also estimated that the number of foreign fighters does not exceed 10 percent of the opposition armed forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://icsr.info/2013/04/icsr-insight-european-foreign-fighters-in-syria-2/|title=ICSR Insight: European Foreign Fighters in Syria|date=2 April 2013|accessdate=2013-04-27}}</ref> The European Commission expressed concerns that some of the fighters might use their skills obtained in Syria to commit acts of terrorism back in Europe in the future.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rt.com/news/belgian-father-son-syria-433/|title=‘He was brainwashed’: Desperate Belgian father searches for son fighting in Syria|date=26 April 2013|accessdate=2013-04-26}}</ref>

The most significant group is [[Al-Nusra Front]], headed by Abu Mohammed al-Golani, which probably accounts for up to a quarter of opposition fighters in Syria. It includes some of the rebellion's most battle-hardened and effective fighters, coming from Libya, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, Tunisia, Palestine, Lebanon, Australia, [[Chechnya]], Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Kosovo, Azerbaijan, France, Iraq, Spain, Denmark and Tajikistan.<ref name="GuardianForeignFighters">{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/sep/23/syria-foreign-fighters-joining-war |title=Syria: the foreign fighters joining the war against Bashar al-Assad|work=The Guardian|date=23 September 2012|accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref><ref name=meetislamists>{{cite web|url=http://world.time.com/2012/07/26/time-exclusive-meet-the-islamist-militants-fighting-alongside-syrias-rebels//|title=TIME Exclusive: Meet the Islamist Militants Fighting Alongside Syria's Rebels|date=26 July 2012|accessdate=9 December 2012|work=Time}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/02/23/al-nusra-al-qaeda-s-syria-offensive.html|title=Al Nusra: Al Qaeda’s Syria Offensive|date=23 February 2013|accessdate=2013-02-28}}</ref>

After the [[Libyan civil war|civil war in Libya]] had finished, fighters from there began moving to Syria through Turkey. It was reported by Syrian opposition that foreigners brought heavy weapons with them, including [[surface-to-air missiles]]. However, Libyans denied that claim.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://world.time.com/2012/08/27/libyas-fighters-export-their-revolution-to-syria/|title=Libya’s Fighters Export Their Revolution to Syria|date=2012-08-27|accessdate=2013-05-06}}</ref>
[[Abdulhakim Belhadj]], head of the Tripoli Military Council, met with FSA leaders near the border with Turkey. The meetings were a sign of growing ties between new Libyan government and Syrian opposition. The arrangements included transfers of money and weapons, as well as training of the rebels by skilled fighters from Libya.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8919057/Leading-Libyan-Islamist-met-Free-Syrian-Army-opposition-group.html|title=Leading Libyan Islamist met Free Syrian Army opposition group|date=2011-11-27|accessdate=2013-05-06}}</ref> One of the Libya's most known rebel commanders, [[Mahdi al-Harati]], traveled to Syria in a group of 30 fighters, to form [[Liwaa al-Umma]] there.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/28/world/meast/syria-libya-fighters|title=Libya rebels move onto Syrian battlefield|date=2012-07-28|accessdate=2013-05-06}}</ref>

In October 2012, various Iraqi religious sects join the conflict in Syria on both sides. Radical Sunnis from Iraq, have traveled to Syria to fight against President [[Bashar al-Assad]] and the Syrian government.<ref name="nyt10282012">{{cite news|title=Iraqi Sects Join Battle in Syria on Both Sides|date=28 October 2012|work=The New York Times|accessdate=22 November 2012|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/28/world/middleeast/influx-of-iraqi-shiites-to-syria-widens-wars-scope.html|last1=Ghazi|first1=Yasir |last2=Arango |first2=Tim}}</ref> Also, Shiites from Iraq, in [[Babil Province]] and [[Diyala Province]], have traveled to [[Damascus]] from [[Tehran]], or from the Shiite Islamic holy city of [[Najaf]], Iraq to protect [[Sayyida Zeinab]], an important mosque and shrine of [[Shia Islam]] in Damascus.<ref name="nyt10282012"/>

Hundreds of young Saudis were reported to travel through Turkey or Jordan in order to fight against Assad in Syria. In one documented case a judge encouraged a group of convicted young men to "fight against the real enemy, the Shia". Most of them joined Syrian rebels. Since convicted criminals cannot leave Saudi Arabia without Interior Ministry permission, it is suspected that officials silently allow them to travel to fight.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/2013/03/13/174156172/with-official-wink-and-nod-young-saudis-join-syrias-rebels|title=With Official Wink And Nod, Young Saudis Join Syria's Rebels|date=2013-03-13|accessdate=2013-05-21}}</ref>

Government of [[Tunisia]] estimated that about 800 of its citizens were fighting alongside Islamist forces in Syria. However, unofficial sources at Interior Ministry put the number as high as 2,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-22529019|title=Syria conflict: Why did my Tunisian son join the rebels?|date=2013-03-15|accessdate=2013-05-21}}</ref>

Hundreds of Egyptian fighters are suspected to be involved in Syrian conflict. Some of them traveled there and back several times. The government officially confirmed 10 "martyrs".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/04/egyptians-lesser-jihad-syria-fighting.html|title=Egyptian Fighters Join 'Lesser Jihad' in Syria|date=2013-04-17|accessdate=2013-05-21}}</ref>

8 Spanish citizens have been arrested in [[Ceuta]]. These individuals have been accused of training and organising the movement of Spaniards to fight in Syria, with the group having links to Al-Qaeda. Some 500 European citizens, according to EU counter-terrorism head [[Gilles de Kerchove]], are fighting in Syria, two British citizens and an American woman have been killed in Syria so far.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22999619 Spain arrests 'Syria jihadist suspects' in Ceuta 21 June 2013</ref>

===Humanitarian help===
[[USAID]] and other government agencies in US delivered nearly $385 million of aid items to Syria in 2012 and 2013. The United States is providing food aid, medical supplies, emergency and basic health care, shelter materials, clean water, hygiene education and supplies, and other relief supplies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usaid.gov/what-we-do/working-crises-and-conflict/responding-times-crisis/where-we-work/syria|title=USAID/SYRIA|accessdate=2013-04-29}}</ref> [[Islamic Relief]] has stocked 30 hospitals and sent hundreds of thousands of medical and food parcels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irusa.org/emergencies/syrian-humanitarian-relief/|title=SYRIAN HUMANITARIAN RELIEF|accessdate=2013-04-29}}</ref>

Iran has been exporting between 500 and 800 tonnes of flour daily, by sea and land, to Syria.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130303/iran-sending-tonnes-flour-daily-syria-report|title=Iran sending tonnes of flour daily to Syria: report|date=3 March 2013|accessdate=2013-04-29}}</ref>

On 26 April 2013 a humanitarian convoy, inspired by [[Gaza Flotilla]], departed from Turkey to Syria. Called ''Hayat'' (Life), it is set to deliver aid items to [[Internally displaced person|IDPs]] inside Syria and refugees in neighboring countries: Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq and Egypt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbulletin.net/?aType=haber&ArticleID=107584|title=Humanitarian aid convoy departs to help Syrian refugees|date=27 April 2013|accessdate=2013-04-29}}</ref>

The [[World Health Organization]] has reported that 35% of the country's hospitals are out of service and, depending upon the region, up to 70% of the health care professionals have fled. Cases of diarrhoea and hepatitis-A have increased by more than twofold since the beginning of the year. Due to the fighting the normal vaccination programs cannot be undertaken. The displaced refugees also may pose a risk to the countries to which they have fled.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-22766084 WHO warns of Syria disease threat 4 June 2013</ref>

==Impact==

===Deaths===
{{main|Casualties of the Syrian civil war}}
[[File:Total deaths over time as a result of the Syrian civil war.PNG|thumb|right|Total deaths over the course of the conflict in Syria (18 March 2011 – 1 March 2013)]]

Estimates of deaths in the conflict vary widely, with figures, per opposition activist groups, ranging from 72,960 to 96,430.<ref name=SOHR/><ref name="Violations Documenting Center"/><ref name="Violations Documenting Center1"/><ref name="shuhadamain"/> On 2 January 2013, the United Nations stated that 60,000 had been killed since the civil war began, with U.N. [[High Commissioner for Human Rights]] [[Navi Pillay]] saying "The number of casualties is much higher than we expected, and is truly shocking."<ref name=deathtolljump>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/01/02/world/meast/syria-civil-war/index.html |title=U.N.'s Syria death toll jumps dramatically to 60,000-plus|date=3 January 2013}}</ref> Four months later, the U.N.'s updated figure for the death toll had reached 80,000.<ref name=UN80000Dead/> On 13 June the UN released an updated figure of people killed since fighting began, the figure being exactly 92,901, for up to the end of April 2013. [[Navi Pillay]], UN high commissioner for human rights, stated that: "This is most likely a minimum casualty figure." The real toll was guessed to be over 100,000.<ref name=UN/><ref name=UN1/> Some areas of the country have been affected disproportionately by the war; by some estimates, as many as a third of all deaths have occurred in the city of [[Homs]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-21228039|title=Syria crisis: Solidarity amid suffering in Homs|publisher=BBC|date=29 January 2013|accessdate=29 January 2013}}</ref>

One problem has been determining the number of "armed combatants" who have died, due to some sources counting rebel fighters who were not government defectors as civilians.<ref>{{cite web|last=Enders |first=David |url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/11/06/173808/deaths-in-syria-down-from-peak.html |title=Deaths in Syria down from peak; army casualties outpacing rebels'|publisher=McClatchy|date=6 November 2012 |accessdate=14 November 2012}}</ref> At least half of those killed have been estimated to be combatants from both sides, including more than 15,300 government soldiers. In addition, [[UNICEF]] reported that over 500 children had been killed by early February 2012,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www6.arabnews.com/node/405908|title=400 children killed in Syria unrest |publisher=Arab News|date=8 February 2012 |accessdate=28 January 2013|location=Geneva }}</ref> and another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons;<ref name="npr">{{cite web |last=Peralta |first=Eyder |url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2012/02/03/146346490/rights-group-says-syrian-security-forces-detained-tortured-children |title=Rights Group Says Syrian Security Forces Detained, Tortured Children: The Two-Way |publisher=NPR |date=3 February 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012}}</ref> both of these claims have been contested by the Syrian government. Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners are known to have died under torture.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/06/world/middleeast/hundreds-tortured-in-syria-human-rights-group-says.html |work=The New York Times |first=Kareem |last=Fahim |title=Hundreds Tortured in Syria, Human Rights Group Says |date=5 January 2012|accessdate=12 March 2013 }}</ref> In mid-October 2012, the opposition activist group [[Syrian Observatory for Human Rights|SOHR]] reported the number of children killed in the conflict had risen to 2,300,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/160978#.UH2WesU3tCg |title=Fighting Continues in Syria |publisher=Arutz Sheva|date=16 October 2012 |accessdate=25 October 2012}}</ref> and in March 2013, opposition sources stated that over 5,000 children had been killed.<ref name="Violations Documenting Center"/> SOHR's methodology for counting civilian victims has been questioned, as the organisation includes opposition combatants among the number of civilian casualties, as long as these are not former members of the military.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1111/mepo.12003}}</ref>

===Refugees===
{{main|Refugees of the Syrian civil war}}
[[File:Syrian refugees in lebanon.jpg|thumb|Syrian refugees in Lebanon living in cramped quarters (6 August 2012).]]
The violence in Syria has caused millions to flee their homes. In August 2012, the United Nations said more than one million people were internally displaced.<ref name=200krefugees>{{cite news|title=Syria crisis: Number of refugees rises to 200,000|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-19370506|accessdate=24 August 2012|date=24 August 2012|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> Many have sought safety in nearby countries. Jordan has seen the largest influx of refugees since the conflict began, followed by Turkey, Lebanon, and Iraq. Turkey has accepted 400,000 Syrian refugees, half of whom are spread around a dozen camps placed under the direct authority of the Turkish Government. Satellite images confirmed that the first Syrian camps appeared in Turkey in July 2011, shortly after the towns of Deraa, Homs and Hama were besieged.<ref>[http://www.astrium-geo.com/en/4807-syrian-refugee-camps-in-turkish-territory-interactive-web-report Syrian refugee camps in Turkish territory tracked by satellite]</ref> On 9 October 2012, the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR) reported that the number of external Syrian refugees stood at between 355,000 to 500,000.<ref name=reuters335000>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/10/09/us-syria-crisis-refugees-idUSBRE8980ZP20121009|date=9 October 2012|accessdate=16 October 2012|agency=Reuters|title=Up to 335,000 people have fled Syria violence: UNHCR}}</ref> In April 2013, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded 1.4 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20130426-syrian-refugee-numbers-top-14-million-unhcr |title=Syrian refugee numbers top 1.4 million: UNHCR |publisher=FRANCE 24 |date=2013-04-26 |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

===Human rights violations===
{{main|Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war}}
[[File:Weekly deaths over the course of the Syrian civil war.PNG|thumb|right|Weekly deaths over the course of the conflict in Syria (18 March 2011 – 1 March 2013)]]
The "vast majority" of human rights violations documented in Syria, including numerous [[International criminal law|international crimes]], have been committed by the Syrian military and security forces and their allied militia.<ref>{{Cite journal |separator= . |title= Preliminary report of the High Commissioner on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic |url= http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/17session/A.HRC.17.CRP.1_Englishonly.pdf |publisher= UN Human Rights Council |date= 14 June 2011 |accessdate=30 June 2012}}</ref>{{rp|4|date=December 2012}}<ref name="deadly reprisals"/>{{rp|10|date=December 2012}}<ref name="UN update">{{Cite journal |separator= . |date= 24 May 2012 |title= Periodic Update of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic |url= http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/SpecialSession/CISyria/PeriodicUpdateCISyria.pdf |publisher= UN Human Rights Council |accessdate=25 June 2012}}</ref>{{rp|1|date=December 2012}}<ref name="UN Nov11">{{Cite journal |separator= . |title= Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic |url= http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/SY/A.HRC.S-17.2.Add.1_en.pdf |publisher= UN Human Rights Council |date= 23 November 2011 |accessdate=23 June 2012}}</ref>{{rp|20|date=December 2012}} Some violations are considered by many to be so serious, deliberate, and systematic as to constitute [[crimes against humanity]]<ref name="deadly reprisals"/>{{rp|7|date=December 2012}}<ref name="OHCHR Sep11">{{Cite journal |separator= . |title= Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic |url= http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/countries/SY/Syria_Report_2011-08-17.pdf |publisher= UN Human Rights Council |date= 15 September 2011 |accessdate=30 June 2012}}</ref>{{rp|5|date=December 2012}}<ref name="UN Nov11"/>{{rp|18–20|date=December 2012}}<ref name="HRW CaH">{{Cite journal |separator= . |title= "We've Never Seen Such Horror": Crimes against Humanity by Syrian Security Forces |url= http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria0611webwcover.pdf |publisher= Human Rights Watch |date=June 2011 |accessdate=3 July 2012}}</ref> and war crimes.<ref name="deadly reprisals"/>{{rp|7|date=December 2012}} According to [[Human Rights Watch]], the Assad government has created an "archipelago of torture centers".<ref name="HRW arch">{{Cite journal |separator= . |title= Torture Archipelago: Arbitrary Arrests, Torture and Enforced Disappearances in Syria's Underground Prisons since March 2011 |url= http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/syria0712webwcover.pdf |publisher= Human Rights Watch |date= July 2012 |accessdate=3 July 2012}}</ref>{{rp|1|date=December 2012}} A key role in the repression, and particularly torture, is played by the ''mukhabarat'': the Department of Military Intelligence, the Political Security Directorate, the General Intelligence Directorate, and the Air Force Intelligence Directorate.<ref name="OHCHR Sep11"/>{{rp|9|date=December 2012}}<ref name="HRW arch"/>{{rp|1, 35|date=December 2012}} Human Rights Watch has also stated it has evidence of [[cluster bomb]] attacks on civilians by Syria's air force.<ref>[http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/10/23/syria-despite-denials-more-cluster-bomb-attacks "Syria: Despite Denials, More Cluster Bomb Attacks"]. HRW.org. 23 October 2012.</ref>

With regard to armed opposition groups, the UN accused them of offences including unlawful killing, torture and ill-treatment, kidnapping and hostage taking, and the use of children in dangerous non-combat roles.<ref name="UN update"/>{{rp|4–5|date=December 2012}} A example was documented with video footage, where a boy – aged between 12 and 14 – executed a prisoner, cutting his throat with a machete.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnesty.org.uk/news_details.asp?NewsID=20676|title=Syria: Government indiscriminately bombing civilians, opposition abuses 'escalating' – new briefings|date=14 March 2013|accessdate=2013-o4-23}}</ref> [[Human Rights Watch]] also reports evidence of rebels kidnapping civilians for ransom, as well as summary executions of army soldiers and numerous cases of physical torture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/03/20/open-letter-leaders-syrian-opposition|title=Open Letter to the Leaders of the Syrian Opposition|date=20 March 2012|accessdate=2013-02-01}}</ref>

The Syrian army is reported by rights groups to deliberately target children, often slaughtering them with knives.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/31/opinion/ghitis-syria-killing-children |title=Why the Syrian regime is killing babies |publisher=CNN.com |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian siege of Homs is genocidal, say trapped residents|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/feb/07/syrian-homs-siege-genocidal-say-residents|newspaper=The Guardian|date=7 February 2012}}</ref>

Women in the Syrian government's prisons are repeatedly raped and beaten, and are many times sexually tortured.<ref>{{cite news|last=Ungaro|first=Cosima|title=Rape And Abuse in Syria's Detention Centers Documented in BBC Report (VIDEO)|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/09/27/rape-abuse-syria-detention-centers-video_n_1919656.html|newspaper=Huffington Post|date=27 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.womenundersiegeproject.org/blog/entry/syria-has-a-massive-rape-crisis |title=Syria has a massive rape crisis |publisher=Women Under Siege Project |date= |accessdate=2013-05-29}}</ref>

On 14 January 2013, the [[International Rescue Committee]] released a report stating many refugees flee Syria due to a widespread fear of rape. The report also spoke of the systematic targeting of health care workers, and the shooting of engineers seeking to maintain the sanitation and water infrastructure of Aleppo.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rescue.org/crisis-syria-0 |title=Syria: A Regional Crisis |date=14 January 2013|accessdate=20 January 2013 |publisher=[[International Rescue Committee]]}}</ref>

===Crime wave===
[[File:Aleppo hospital.PNG|thumb|right|Doctors and medical staff treating injured rebel fighters and civilians in Aleppo]]
As the conflict has expanded across Syria, many cities have been engulfed in a wave of crime as fighting caused the disintegration of much of the civilian state, and many police stations stopped functioning. Rates of thievery increased, with criminals looting houses and stores. Rates of kidnappings increased as well. Rebel fighters were sighted stealing cars and destroying an Aleppo restaurant in which Syrian soldiers had eaten.<ref>{{cite news|last=Cave|first=Damein|title=Crime Wave Engulfs Syria as Its Cities Reel From War|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/10/world/middleeast/crime-wave-engulfs-syria-as-its-cities-reel-from-war.html|accessdate=26 August 2012|work=The New York Times|date=9 August 2012}}</ref>

By July 2012, the human rights group [[Women Under Siege]] had documented over 100 cases of rape and [[sexual assault]] during the conflict, with many of these crimes believed to be perpetrated by the Shabiha and other pro-government militias. Victims included men, women, and children, with about 80% of the known victims being women and girls.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.womenundersiegeproject.org/blog/entry/the-ultimate-assault-charting-syrias-use-of-rape-to-terrorize-its-people|title=The ultimate assault: Charting Syria's use of rape to terrorize its people|publisher=Women Under Siege|date=11 July 2012|accessdate=27 August 2012}}</ref>

Criminal networks have been used by both the government and the opposition during the conflict. Facing international sanctions, the Syrian government relied on criminal organizations to smuggle goods and money in and out of the country. The economic downturn caused by the conflict and sanctions also led to lower wages for Shabiha members. In response, some Shabiha members began stealing civilian properties, and engaging in kidnappings.<ref name="Organized crime" />

Rebel forces sometimes relied on criminal networks to obtain weapons and supplies. Black market weapon prices in Syria's neighboring countries have significantly increased since the start of the conflict. To generate funds to purchase arms, some rebel groups have turned towards extortion, stealing, and kidnapping.<ref name="Organized crime" />

===Cultural heritage===
{{main|List of heritage sites damaged during Syrian civil war}}
The civil war has caused significant damage to Syria's cultural heritage, including [[World Heritage Site]]s. Destruction of antiquities has been caused by [[shell (projectile)|shelling]], army entrenchment and [[looting]] at various [[tell]]s, museums, and monuments.<ref>Cunliffe, Emma. [http://ghn.globalheritagefund.com/uploads/documents/document_2107.pdf "Damage to the Soul: Syria's cultural heritage in conflict"]. [[Durham University]] and the [[Global Heritage Fund]]. 1 May 2012.</ref> A group called [[Syrian archaeological heritage under threat|Syrian Archaeological Heritage Under Threat]] is monitoring and recording the destruction in an attempt to create a list of heritage sites damaged during the war and gain global support for the protection and preservation of [[Syro-Palestinian archaeology|Syrian archaeology]] and architecture.<ref>Fisk, Robert. [http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-syrias-ancient-treasures-pulverised-8007768.html "Syria's ancient treasures pulverised"]. ''The Independent''. 5 August 2012.</ref>

===Effects on Lebanon===
{{further|Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon}}

The Syrian civil war has led to incidents of sectarian violence in [[North Governorate|northern Lebanon]] between supporters and opponents of the Syrian government, and armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/24/world/middleeast/syrian-war-plays-out-along-a-street-in-lebanon.html|title=Syrian War Plays Out Along a Street in Lebanon|work=The New York Times|date=24 August 2012}}</ref> Fighting between rebels and government forces has spilled into Lebanon on several occasions. The Syrian Air Force has conducted air strikes on targets in Lebanon, while rebels have launched rockets on Hezbollah targets.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Politics/2013/Mar-19/210702-lebanon-condemns-syria-airstrike-on-its-territories.ashx#axzz2VjYHFdPG | title=Syria airstrike on Lebanon ‘unacceptable’: Sleiman | work=The Daily Star | date=19 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Rockets strike Beirut suburb as sectarian strife flares in Lebanon, Syria|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/05/26/world/meast/lebanon-violence/|newspaper=CNN|date=27 May 2013}}</ref> Fighting between supporters of the Sunni sheikh [[Ahmed Al-Assir‎]], who is against Hezbollah's involvement in Syria, and the Lebanese army has killed at least 15 of its soldiers.<ref>http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/06/201362471421241300.html Deadly fighting rages in Lebanon 24 June 2013</ref>

===Art===
The war has produced its own particular art. An exhibition in London 2013 was able to show some of this work. <ref> The Guardian 22 June 2013 [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jun/22/syria-art-smuggled-exhibition-london-uk] </ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Syrian civil war}}
*[[List of civil wars]]
*[[List of modern conflicts in the Middle East]]
*[[List of ongoing military conflicts]]
*[[List of wars by death toll]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hinnebusch |first=Raymond |year=2012 |title=Syria: From 'Authoritarian Upgrading' to Revolution? |journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]] |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=95–113 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01059.x }}
* {{cite journal |last=International Crisis Group |title=Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (VII): The Syrian Regimes Slow-Motion Suicide |journal=Middle East/North Africa Report N°109 |format=PDF |date=13 July 2011 |url= http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/109%20Popular%20Protest%20in%20North%20Africa%20and%20the%20Middle%20East%20VII%20--%20The%20Syrian%20Regimes%20Slow-motion%20Suicide.pdf |accessdate=22 July 2011}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Lawson |editor-first=Fred Haley |date=1 February 2010 |title=Demystifying Syria |url=http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Demystifying-Syria.php |publisher=Saqi |isbn=978-0-86356-654-7 }}
* Rashdan, Abdelrahman. [http://www.onislam.net/english/politics/asia/456316-syrians-crushed-in-a-complex-international-game.html Syrians Crushed in a Complex International Game.] ''OnIslam.net.'' 21 March 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
* {{cite book |last=Van Dam |first=Nikolaos |url=http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/The-struggle-for-power-in-Syria-Nikolaos-van-Dam.php |title=The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba'ath Party |publisher=I. B. Tauris |date=15 July 2011 |isbn=1-84885-760-8 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wright |first=Robin |title=Dreams and Shadows: The Future of the Middle East |location=New York|publisher=Penguin Press |year=2008 |isbn=1-59420-111-0 |pages=212–261 }}
* {{cite book |last=Ziadeh |first=Radwan |title=Power and Policy in Syria: Intelligence Services, Foreign Relations and Democracy in the Modern Middle East |year=2011 |location=London|publisher=I. B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-84885-434-5 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links |n=Category:2011 Syria anti-government protests |wikt=no |b=no |q=no |s=no |v=no |voy=Syria |display=the Syrian civil war}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17258397 Syria Conflict] at ''[[BBC News]]''
* [http://www.facebook.com/pages/20112012-Syrian-uprising/306895549356576 Syrian uprising] at Facebook
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/world/syrian-uprising-one-year-of-bloodshed/index.html Syrian uprising: A year in turmoil] at ''[[The Washington Post]]''
* [http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArticleDetails.aspx?ID=253828 Latest Syria developments] at ''[[NOW Lebanon]]''
* {{Guardian topic|world/syria|Syria}}
* [http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/syria/index.html Syria] collected news and commentary at ''[[The New York Times]]''
* [http://www.icrc.org/eng/where-we-work/middle-east/syria/index.jsp The ICRC in Syria], [[International Committee of the Red Cross]]
* [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/ Syria news, all the latest and breaking Syria news] at ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]''
* [http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/syria/ Syria] collected coverage at ''[[Al Jazeera English]]''
{{Syrian civil war}}
{{Arab Spring}}
{{Syria topics}}
{{Ongoing military conflicts}}
{{Middle East conflicts}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Syrian civil war}}
[[Category:Syrian civil war| ]]
[[Category:2010s civil wars]]
[[Category:2011 in Syria]]
[[Category:2012 in Syria]]
[[Category:2013 in Syria]]
[[Category:Arab Spring by country]]
[[Category:Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Asia]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 2011]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 2012]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 2013]]
[[Category:Politics of Syria]]
[[Category:Protests in Syria]]
[[Category:Rebellions in Syria]]
[[Category:Wars involving Hezbollah]]
[[Category:Wars involving Iran]]
[[Category:Wars involving Syria]]

Revision as of 00:46, 26 June 2013

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