Tsunami earthquake

A tsunami earthquake triggers a tsunami of a magnitude that is very much larger than the magnitude of the earthquake as measured by shorter-period seismic waves. The term was introduced by Hiroo Kanamori in 1972.^[1] Such events are a result of relatively slow rupture velocities. They are particularly dangerous as a large tsunami may arrive at a neighbouring coast with little or no warning.

Characteristics

The distinguishing feature for a tsunami earthquake is that the release of seismic energy occurs at long periods (low frequencies) relative to typical tsunamigenic earthquakes. Earthquakes of this type do not generally show the peaks of seismic wave activity associated with ordinary events. A tsunami earthquake can be defined as an undersea earthquake for which the surface wave magnitude M_s differs markedly from the moment magnitude M_w, because the former is calculated from surface waves with a period of about 20 seconds, whereas the latter is a measure of the total energy release at all frequencies.^[2] The displacements associated with tsunami earthquakes are consistently greater than those associated with ordinary tsunamigenic earthquakes of the same moment magnitude, typically more than double. Rupture velocities for tsunami earthquakes are typically about 1.0 km per second, compared to the more normal 2.5–3.5 km per second for other megathrust earthquakes. These slow rupture speeds lead to greater directivity, with the potential to cause higher run-ups on short coastal sections. Tsunami earthquakes mainly occur at subduction zones where there is a large accretionary wedge or where sediments are being subducted, as this weaker material leads to the slower rupture velocities.^[2]

Cause

Analysis of tsunami earthquakes such as the 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake shows that the release of seismic moment takes place at an unusually long period. Calculations of the effective moment derived from surface waves show a rapid increase with decrease in the frequency of the seismic waves, whereas for ordinary earthquakes it remains almost constant with frequency. The duration over which the seabed is deformed has little effect on the size of the resultant tsunami for times up to several minutes. The observation of long period energy release is consistent with unusually slow rupture propagation velocities.^[1] Slow rupture velocities are linked to propagation through relatively weak material, such as poorly consolidated sedimentary rocks. Most tsunami earthquakes have been linked to rupture within the uppermost part of a subduction zone, where an accretionary wedge is developed in the hanging wall of the megathrust. Tsunami earthquakes have also been linked to the presence of a thin layer of subducted sedimentary rock along the uppermost part of the plate interface, as is thought to be present in areas of significant topography at the top of the oceanic crust, and where propagation was in an up-dip direction, possibly reaching the seafloor.^[3]

Identifying tsunami earthquakes

Standard methods of giving early warnings for tsunamis rely on data that will not typically identify a tsunami earthquake as tsunamigenic and therefore fail to predict possibly damaging tsunamis.^[4]

Examples

1896 Sanriku

On 15 June 1896 the Sanriku coast was struck by a devastating tsunami with a maximum wave height of 38.2 m, which caused more than 22,000 deaths. The residents of the coastal towns and villages were taken completely by surprise because the tsunami had only been preceded by a relatively weak shock. The magnitude of the tsunami has been estimated as M_t=8.2 while the earthquake shaking only indicated a magnitude of M_s=7.2. This discrepancy in magnitude requires more than just a slow rupture velocity. Modelling of tsunami generation that takes into account additional uplift associated with deformation of the softer sediments of the accretionary wedge caused by horizontal movement of the 'backstop' in the overriding plate has successfully explained the discrepancy, estimating a magnitude of M_w=8.0–8.1.^[5]

1992 Nicaragua

The 1992 Nicaragua earthquake was the first tsunami earthquake to be recorded with a broad-band seismic network.^[6]

Other tsunami earthquakes

References

^ ^a ^b ^c Kanamori, H. (1972). "Mechanism of tsunami earthquakes" (PDF). Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. 6: 346–359. Bibcode:1972PEPI....6..346K. doi:10.1016/0031-9201(72)90058-1. Retrieved 19 July 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Bryant, E. (2008). "5. Earthquake-generated tsunami". Tsunami: the underrated hazard (2 ed.). Springer. pp. 129–138. ISBN 978-3-540-74273-9. Retrieved 19 July 2011.
^ ^a ^b Polet, J.; Kanamori H. (2000). "Shallow subduction zone earthquakes and their tsunamigenic potential" (PDF). Geophysical Journal International. 142. Royal Astronomical Society: 684–702. Bibcode:2000GeoJI.142..684P. doi:10.1046/j.1365-246X.2000.00205.x. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
^ Tsuboi, S. (2000). "Application of M_wp to tsunami earthquake". Geophysical Research Letters. 27 (19). American Geophysical Union. Bibcode:2000GeoRL..27.3105T. doi:10.1029/2000GL011735. Retrieved 19 July 2011.
^ Tanioka, Y.; Seno T. (2001). "Sediment effect on tsunami generation of the 1896 Sanriku tsunami earthquake" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 28 (17): 3389–3392. Bibcode:2001GeoRL..28.3389T. doi:10.1029/2001GL013149. Retrieved 19 July 2011.
^ Kanamori, H.; Kikuchi M. (1993). "The 1992 Nicaragua earthquake: a slow tsunami earthquake associated with subducted sediments" (PDF). Nature. 361: 714–716. Bibcode:1993Natur.361..714K. doi:10.1038/361714a0. Retrieved 19 July 2011.
^ Ishibashi, K. (2004). "Status of historical seismology in Japan" (PDF). Annals of Geophysics. 47 (2/3): 339–368. Retrieved 22 November 2009.
^ Ammon, C.J.; Kanamori H.; Lay T.; Velasco A.A. (2006). "The 17 July 2006 Java tsunami earthquake" (PDF). 33. American Geophysical Union: L24308. Bibcode:2006GeoRL..3324308A. doi:10.1029/2006GL028005. Retrieved 23 July 2011. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[Kanamori_1972-1] Kanamori, H. (1972). "Mechanism of tsunami earthquakes" (PDF). Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. 6: 346–359. Bibcode:1972PEPI....6..346K. doi:10.1016/0031-9201(72)90058-1. Retrieved 19 July 2011.

[Bryant-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Bryant, E. (2008). "5. Earthquake-generated tsunami". Tsunami: the underrated hazard (2 ed.). Springer. pp. 129–138. ISBN 978-3-540-74273-9. Retrieved 19 July 2011.

[Polet-3] Polet, J.; Kanamori H. (2000). "Shallow subduction zone earthquakes and their tsunamigenic potential" (PDF). Geophysical Journal International. 142. Royal Astronomical Society: 684–702. Bibcode:2000GeoJI.142..684P. doi:10.1046/j.1365-246X.2000.00205.x. Retrieved 23 July 2011.

[Tsuboi-4] Tsuboi, S. (2000). "Application of M_wp to tsunami earthquake". Geophysical Research Letters. 27 (19). American Geophysical Union. Bibcode:2000GeoRL..27.3105T. doi:10.1029/2000GL011735. Retrieved 19 July 2011.

[Seno-5] Tanioka, Y.; Seno T. (2001). "Sediment effect on tsunami generation of the 1896 Sanriku tsunami earthquake" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 28 (17): 3389–3392. Bibcode:2001GeoRL..28.3389T. doi:10.1029/2001GL013149. Retrieved 19 July 2011.

[Kanamori_1992-6] Kanamori, H.; Kikuchi M. (1993). "The 1992 Nicaragua earthquake: a slow tsunami earthquake associated with subducted sediments" (PDF). Nature. 361: 714–716. Bibcode:1993Natur.361..714K. doi:10.1038/361714a0. Retrieved 19 July 2011.

[Ishibashi-7] Ishibashi, K. (2004). "Status of historical seismology in Japan" (PDF). Annals of Geophysics. 47 (2/3): 339–368. Retrieved 22 November 2009.

[Ammon-8] Ammon, C.J.; Kanamori H.; Lay T.; Velasco A.A. (2006). "The 17 July 2006 Java tsunami earthquake" (PDF). 33. American Geophysical Union: L24308. Bibcode:2006GeoRL..3324308A. doi:10.1029/2006GL028005. Retrieved 23 July 2011. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

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