User:Bluup/Structures built by animals

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Article Draft[edit]

General Outline:


- Add more info + examples of the 3 main reason why animals build structures (create protected habitats, catch prey and forage, intra-specific communication)


- Add more info + examples to the Transportation headline


- Add more examples and supporting information to each headline under Building Materials (Material of Animal Origin, Plant Material, Mud and Stones, Self Secreted materials) as well as the Protection from Predators Headline


-Add section of the evolution of animal architecture?

Structures built by animals, often called animal architecture, abound in nature. Often, these structures incorporate sophisticated features such as temperature regulation, traps, bait, ventilation, special-purpose chambers and many other features. They may be created by individuals or complex societies of social animals with different forms carrying out specialised roles. These constructions may arise from complex building behaviour of animals such as in the case of night-time nests for chimpanzees, from inbuilt neural responses, which feature prominently in the construction of bird songs, or triggered by hormone release as in the case of domestic sows, or as emergent properties from simple instinctive responses and interactions, as exhibited by termites, or combinations of these. The process of building such structures may involve learning and communication, and in some cases, even aesthetics. Tool use may also be involved in building structures by animals. Examples include termite mounds, wasp and beehives, burrow complexes of rodents, beaver dams, elaborate nests of birds, and webs of spiders.

Functions[edit]

Animals create structures primarily for three reasons:[1]

  • to create protected habitats, i.e. homes.
  • to catch prey and for foraging, i.e. traps.
  • for communication between members of the species (intra-specific communication), i.e. display.

Animals primarily build habitat for protection from extreme temperatures and from predation. Constructed structures raise physical problems which need to be resolved, such as humidity control or ventilation, which increases the complexity of the structure. Over time, through evolution, animals use shelters for other purposes such as reproduction, food storage, etc.[1]



Protected Habitats[edit]

Nest, eggs and young of the red-wattled lapwing which depends upon crypsis to avoid detection of its nest.
The red-faced spinetail places bits of grass and other material loosely streaming around its nest to break the shape and to masquerade as debris.

Predators are attracted to animal-built structures either by the prey or its offspring, or the stored caches of food. Structures built by animals may provide protection from predators through avoiding detection, by means such as camouflage and concealment, or through prevention of invasion, once predators have located the hideout or prey, or a combination of both.[2]: 11  As a last resort, structures may provide means of escape.

Among the structures created by animals to prevent predation are those of the paper wasps, Polistes chinensis antennalis.[3] The nests of these wasps contain “defensive structures”, which are formations built onto or inside of the nest to prevent predation.[3] New nests are formed in the spring by young queens, as worker wasps have not hatched at this time. While these worker wasps are growing in the nest, they are vulnerable to predators who might rip open the nest to eat the larva.[3] One method the queens use to prevent this is covering the developing pupae in pulp, which acts as a reinforcer and makes it more difficult from predators to break open the pupae. This pulp is a mixture of plant matter and liquids from the mouth of the queen wasp.[3] While there are costs associated with using pulp, such as requiring time and energy to collect materials and hindering the emergence of the worker wasps from the cocoon, it does lower the risk of predation. Nests in areas with higher predation rates have been found to contain more pulp on these cocoons than nests in low predation areas.[3]

Animals use the techniques of crypsis or camouflage, concealment, and mimicry, for avoiding detection.[2]: 11  Some species of birds will use materials foraged from nature to camouflage their nests and prevent their offspring from being hunted.[3] Blue–gray gnatcatchers (Polioptila caerulea) and long-tailed tits (Aegithalos caudatus) use materials such as spider webbing, silk, and lichen, while other species such as great crested flycatchers (Myiarchus crinitus) and common waxbills (Estrilda astrild) will use animal feces and snake skins to disguise their nests. Crypsis works by blending the structure with its background.[3] The use of lichen flakes as an outer covering of nests by birds, as in the case of the paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisei) have been considered by some authors to be a case of crypsis through "branch-matching" and as a case of disruptive camouflage by the British ethologist, M. Hansell, where the lichen flakes are thought to resemble small patches of light seen through as in the case of insubstantial objects of insufficient importance to receive a predator's interest.[2]: 11, 12 

Ground-nesting birds which rely on crypsis for concealment have nests made from local materials which blend in with the background, the eggs and young too are cryptic; whereas birds which do not use crypsis for hiding their nests may not have cryptic eggs or young.[4]

In a case apparently of masquerade, the red-faced spinetail Cranioleuca erythrops places bits of grass and other material loosely streaming both above and below the nest chamber to break the shape of the nest and to cause it to resemble random debris without any underlying structure.[5]


Trap Building[edit]

Trap-building is a method used to catch prey instead of active hunting.[6] Animals that snare prey will construct a trap and then wait nearby until an organism is caught.[6]This is observed in web-building spiders, who weave elaborate webs of sticky spider silk that entangle prey.[6] Spiders increase the size of their webs when prey are scarce, and can add extra ornamental pieces to their web in order to attract more prey.[6] Traps can allow organisms to capture larger prey, provide protection from predators, or serve as an area for mating, as seen with spiders.[6] Another method of trap creation is used by the antlion (Myrmeleon crudelis) larva.[7] These larva prey on small arthropods, such as ants.[7] The larva dig pits into fine-particle soil to capture their prey, which fall into the holes and are often unable to climb out.[7] The antlions may alter these pits based on prey availability. In areas with less available prey, antlions will make wider holes to increase the chance of catching an insect.[7] If prey are able to climb out of the hole, antlions will increase the depth of the hole.[7]

Displays[edit]

Bowerbird in front of a constructed bower


Animal structures can serve as a means of communication with other organisms.[8] Animals may construct to attract mates, as seen in species of male fiddler crabs.[8] These crabs may form "pillars" or "hoods" out of sand and mud to gain the attention of nearby females.[8] Bowerbirds (Ptilonorhynchus violaceus) also create display structures to attract mates.[9] During the mating season, male Bowerbirds will collect twigs and colourful objects to create structures known as "bowers", which attract the attention of females.[9] Bowers that are more colourful and well constructed are more attractive to female bowerbirds, as the quality of the constructed bowers reflects the quality of the male bird.[9]


Transportation[edit]

Eciton sp. forming a bridge

Army Ants (Eciton hamatum) form "living bridges" to assist in transportation.[10] Army Ant colonies may move locations each day in search of food. These bridges provide a path over obstacles and allow for the ants to search for food at an increased speed. [10] The bridges are constructed when the ants join their bodies together, and can vary in size and shape depending on the situation the ants face.[10] Ants are confined to their position when they are forming these bridges, preventing them from moving.[10] The bridges are broken apart when they are no longer needed.[10]

Plant material[edit]

Young bank voles (Myodes glareolus) in their underground chamber which is often lined with moss, feathers and vegetable fiber.

[11]

Flowering plants provide a variety of resources – twigs, leaves, petioles, roots, flowers and seeds. Basal plants, such as lichens, mosses and ferns also find use in structures built by animals. The leaves of grasses and palms being elongate and parallel-veined are very commonly used for building. These, along-with palm fibers and horse-hair fern are used to build hanging baskets. Wooden twigs form the greater proportion of materials used in the nests of large birds. Plants and trees not only provide resources but also sites. Branches provide support in the form of cantilevered beams while leaves and green twigs provide flexible but strong supports.


Structures formed from plant material include beaver dams, which are constructed by foraged branches and sticks.[12] The dam is a wall of sticks constructed on a moving water source, which forces the water to collect in one area and to stop flowing.[12] Beavers begin to build a dam in an area where rocks and other debris slow the flow of the water. The beavers then form a small platform of sticks stretching across the water source.[12] More sticks and branches are added to build the dam up over time.[12] The structure in the center of the dam, known as the lodge, serves as a home for the beavers and protects them from predators.[12] The primary reason behind the construction of beaver dams is to surround the lodge with deep water, which protects the beaver from and-dwelling predators.[12] The entrance of the dam is underwater to prevent predators such as bears and wolves from entering, and the sticks at the top of the lodge are not packed tightly, which allows air into the structure.[12]

Mud and stones[edit]

Mud is used by a few species of a wide variety of families including wasps and birds. Mud is plastic when wet and provides compressive strength when dried. Amongst birds, 5% of all birds use mud and stones in their nest for toughness and compressive strength.[13] Males in some species of crab will construct structures out of mud to attract mates and avoid predators.[8] Uca musica, also known as fiddler crabs, will build short, wide “hoods” out of sand. Another species of crab, Uca beebei, will build tall, thin pillars out of mud. These structures attract female crabs to male crab burrows and provide a hiding place for both males and females when predators are nearby.[8] Beavers will often seal their dams and lodges with mud for extra support.[12]

Self-secreted materials[edit]

Western honey bees on a wild nest.

The majority of self-secreted materials are produced by insects and selection acts on this characteristic of production of self-secreting materials and increases the fitness of the animal. In some cases, the self-secreted material is directly applied, as in the case of ecribellate silk, spun by ecribellate spiders, to form sticky traps for prey, or it may be processed, as in the case of salivary excretion used for creation of paper by paper wasps, by blending it directly with wood pulp. Self-secreted materials may be processed in some cases. In cribellate spiders, silk produced by the spider are reworked in the cribellum to form fine sticky strands used for capturing prey.[14] In other cases, the scale wax, produced on the bodies of honey bees, is gathered and blended with saliva, to form comb wax, the building material.[14] Not all self-secreted materials are developed specifically for that purpose. For example, bird feathers are used for lining and insulation, a typical example being that of the female common eider duck (Somateria mollissima), which produces down feathers for lining its nest.[15][clarification needed]


Cocoons are another type of structure formed to protect the organism from predation.[12] In order to transform from a larva into a butterfly or moth, a caterpillar must undergo drastic changes in its body. These changes require significant amounts of energy and occur over long periods of time, making a caterpillar very vulnerable to predation.[12] To overcome this, caterpillars will produce silk to form a cocoon or pupa, a structure in which the caterpillar will reside while pupating to lower its risk of predation.[12] Some species of caterpillar, such as the silkworm (Bombyx mori) are able to spin multiple cocoons in the event that one gets destroyed.[16] Some caterpillars will even form defensive structures to accompany their pupas.[12] The Aethria carnicauda caterpillar uses the hairs that cover its body as a defensive mechanism against predators. When it is time to form a cocoon, the caterpillar rips the hairs off of its body and places them around the pupating site.[12] This creates a series of defensive walls to protect the vulnerable caterpillar while resides in its cocoon.[12]





Lead[edit]

Article body[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b Michael Henry Hansell (2005). Animal architecture. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-19-850752-9. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
  2. ^ a b c Michael Henry Hansell (2005). Animal architecture. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-19-850752-9. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Furuichi, Sho; Kasuya, Eiiti (2014-02). "Costs, benefits, and plasticity of construction of nest defensive structures in paper wasps". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 68 (2): 215–221. doi:10.1007/s00265-013-1636-0. ISSN 0340-5443. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ^ Götmark, F. (1993). "Conspicuous nests may select for non-cryptic eggs: a comparative study of avian families". Ornis Fenn. 70: 102–105.
  5. ^ Hansell, Michael Henry (2000). Bird nests and construction behaviour. Cambridge University Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-521-46038-5. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
  6. ^ a b c d e Scharf, Inon; Lubin, Yael; Ovadia, Ofer (2011-08). "Foraging decisions and behavioural flexibility in trap-building predators: a review". Biological Reviews. 86 (3): 626–639. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2010.00163.x. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ a b c d e Farji-Brener, Alejandro G.; Amador-Vargas, Sabrina (2020-12-19). "Plasticity in extended phenotypes: how the antlion Myrmeleon crudelis adjusts the pit traps depending on biotic and abiotic conditions". Israel Journal of Ecology and Evolution. 66 (1–2): 41–47. doi:10.1163/22244662-20191055. ISSN 2224-4662.
  8. ^ a b c d e Christy, John H.; Backwell, Patricia R.; Schober, Ursula (January 2003). "Interspecific attractiveness of structures built by courting male fiddler crabs: experimental evidence of a sensory trap". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 53 (2): 84–91. doi:10.1007/s00265-002-0553-4. ISSN 0340-5443.
  9. ^ a b c Borgia, Gerald (1985-02-01). "Bower quality, number of decorations and mating success of male satin bowerbirds (Ptilonorhynchus violaceus): an experimental analysis". Animal Behaviour. 33 (1): 266–271. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(85)80140-8. ISSN 0003-3472.
  10. ^ a b c d e Graham, Jason M.; Kao, Albert B.; Wilhelm, Dylana A.; Garnier, Simon (2017-12-21). "Optimal construction of army ant living bridges". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 435: 184–198. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2017.09.017. ISSN 0022-5193.
  11. ^ Hansell, M. (2005). Pp 35–54.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Hansell, Mike (2007). Built by Animals : The Natural History of Animal Architecture. Oxford: Oxford OUP. pp. 3–7. ISBN 9780199205561. 9780191578601. 9780191525599.. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  13. ^ Hansell, M. (2005). Pp 35–54.
  14. ^ a b Capinera, John L. (17 September 2008). Encyclopedia of entomology. Springer. pp. 3495–3496. ISBN 978-1-4020-6242-1. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
  15. ^ Hansell, M. (2005). Pp 35–54.
  16. ^ Huang, S. Q.; Zhao, H. P.; Feng, X. Q.; Cui, W.; Lin, Z.; Xu, M. Q. (2008-04). "Mechanical properties of cocoons constructed consecutively by a single silkworm caterpillar, Bombyx mori". Acta Mechanica Sinica. 24 (2): 151–160. doi:10.1007/s10409-008-0141-6. ISSN 0567-7718. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
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