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Sexual arousal,[1][2] orgasm,[1][3] and the refractory period that follows[4] can produce euphoria, as can romantic love.[3][5]

Emotional Expression of Euphoria[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]

Sexual orgasm is typically produces euphoria and the refractory period that follows and romantic love, Euphoria

Sexual arousal, orgasm and and the refractory period that follows can produce euphoria, as can romantic love.

Euphoria[note 1] ( /juːˈfɔːriə/) is an affective state and a form of pleasure in which a person experiences intense feelings of well-being, happiness, and excitement.[16][17][18] Certain drugs, many of which are addictive, can cause euphoria and euphoria, at least partially, motivates their recreational use.[19] Similarly, certain natural rewards and social activities, such as physical exercise, laughter, music listening and making, and dancing, can induce a state of euphoria.[18][20] Euphoria is also a symptom of mania.[21]

This euphoria is symptomatic of a rare syndrome called ecstatic seizures, itself closely associated with religious and mystical experiences which are often euphoric.[22][23][24]


Some barbiturates and benzodiazepines may cause euphoria. Possible euphoria is influenced by the drug's speed of onset,[25] increasing dose,[26] and with intravenous administration.[27] Barbiturates more likely to cause euphoria include amobarbital, secobarbital and pentobarbital.[28][29] Benzodiazepines more likely to cause euphoria are flunitrazepam, alprazolam and diazepam.[25][30][31] Benzodiazepines also enhance opioid induced euphoria.[32]

Here is my revised sentence re ecstatic seizures, with supported rationale and rejection of a narrow definition of euphoria.

This euphoria is symptomatic of a rare syndrome called ecstatic seizures, itself closely associated with religious and mystical experiences which are often euphoric.[33][34]

Compare:

The article defines euphoria as "an affective state and a form of pleasure in which a person experiences intense feelings of well-being, happiness, and excitement."

In medical literature ecstatic seizures are described, "provoke feelings of well-being, ... bliss",[35] "include intense positive affect, feelings of ... enhanced well-being",[36] "experienced ... intense feelings of well-being",[37] "experience a strong sense of happiness".[38] (Several other symptoms may occur.)

Compare again:

Oxford dictionary defines

  • euphoria as "a feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness,"[39] and
  • ecstasy as "an overwhelming feeling of great happiness or joyful excitement."[40]

Cambridge defines

  • euphoria as "a feeling of extreme happiness or confidence,"[41] (US version) and
  • ecstasy as "a state of extreme happiness or pleasure:" (US version)[42]

Shultz's use of euphoria

Shultz (cited) assigns euphoria to an affect of psychoactive drugs. I believe his intent is not to define euphoria (he never uses the term again) but merely to distinguish flavors of pleasure.

  • "There are different degrees and forms of pleasure. ... The feeling of high that is experienced by sports people during running or swimming, the lust evoked by encountering a ready mating partner, a sexual orgasm, the euphoria reported by drug users, and the parental affection to babies constitute different forms (qualities) rather than degrees of pleasure (quantities)."

Also cited are Bearn and O'Brien who actually say

  • "Eating, drinking, sexual activity, and parenting invoke pleasure, an emotion that promotes repetition of these behaviors, are essential for survival. Euphoria, a feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness, is an amplification of pleasure, aspired to one's essential biological needs that are satisfied."

The includes the first sentence—truncated in the the ref's quote—which counters Shultz's seemingly narrow definition.

If Shultz was trying to strictly define euphoria itself to drugs, which I doubt, his definition is not shared and is not a neutral point of view. Consider:

  • "Long-distance runners have described a runner’s high as a sudden pleasant feeling of euphoria, anxiolysis, sedation, and analgesia". and "These acute effects of running, together with a feeling of euphoria, were earlier termed a runner’s high in humans."[43]
  • "Further evidence suggests that running is associated with endorphins and cannabinoids thus explaining the "runners high" or euphoric feelings that may lead to exercise addiction."[44]
  • "We report a 41-year-old woman with complex reflex epilepsy in which seizures were induced exclusively by the act of tooth brushing. All the attacks occurred with a specific sensation of sexual arousal and orgasm-like euphoria that were followed by a period of impairment of consciousness."[45]
  • "Cocaine is described as producing a sense of mental clarity and a state of euphoria ... Acute intravenous administration of cocaine induces a highly pleasurable feeling ("rush") that some individuals equate with sexual orgasm."[46]
  • "There are no recognized definitions or diagnostic criteria for "love addiction," but its phenomenology has some similarities to substance dependence: euphoria and unrestrained desire in the presence of the love object or associated stimuli (drug intoxication)"[47]
  • "Euphoria" in the Oxford dictionary provides a sample sentence: "An example of euphoria is how you feel after your new baby is born."[48]

In a emotional sense, euphoria and ecstasy are very similar, with definitions practically synonymous. Ecstatic seizures commonly have euphoric effects per the article's definition, and this is regardless of the meaning of ecstasy. The narrow view of euphoria is seemingly based on Shultz. It is either a misunderstanding of Shultz or else Shultz's definition is contrary to wider conventional use raising NPOV issues. This is apparent as Shultz divorces runner's high from euphoria yet exercise-induced euphoria is present in the article.

In conclusion

Previous objections to ecstatic seizures should be withdrawn and the reworded sentence added.

(Excepting vandalism and blatant errors,) rather than acting as trigger-happy authorities, editors should utilize the talk page and present supported arguments.

Lastly, I chose not to use this short paper here but some editors may find it useful: How Happy Is Too Happy? Euphoria, Neuroethics, and Deep Brain Stimulation of the Nucleus Accumbens. — sig

Occurring in less than 0.5% of persons with epilepsy, such ecstatic seizures have been closely associated with religious or mystical experiences.[31][32]

Euphoria is defined as a feeling of well-being and great happiness.<ref">"Euphoria dictionary definition | euphoria defined". www.yourdictionary.com. Retrieved 2016-06-05.</ref> and A feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness: The first source provides a sample sentence: An example of euphoria is how you feel after your new baby is born.

Bliss is defined as "Perfect happiness; great joy:"[49]

Ecstatic epileptic seizures are a rare but compelling epileptic entity. During the first seconds of these seizures, ecstatic auras provoke feelings of well-being, intense serenity, bliss, and “enhanced self-awareness.

Ecstatic seizures are focal epileptic seizures which are fascinating from a phenotypical point of view as they include intense positive affect, feelings of heightened self-awareness and enhanced well-being.

We document precise descriptions of the ecstatic seizures experienced by five patients, all of whom reported intense feelings of well-being and a heightened self-awareness.

Since the 1960s several theories have developed on the epilepsy of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky. Probably the most exciting and still actual question might be the subject of the "ecstatic aura", he described in his novels based on his own experiences. During this extremely rare seizure onset the patients experience a strong sense of happiness, harmony and wholeness.

Conceptually, well-being or happiness has long been viewed as requiring at least two crucial ingredients: positive affect or pleasure (hedonia) and a sense of meaningfulness or engagement in life (eudaimonia). 

The similarities between the feelings reported during ecstatic seizures and the feelings experienced under the effect of stimulant addictive drugs are described.[50]

Since the 1960s several theories have developed on the epilepsy of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky. Probably the most exciting and still actual question might be the subject of the "ecstatic aura", he described in his novels based on his own experiences. During this extremely rare seizure onset the patients experience a strong sense of happiness, harmony and wholeness.

Bliss qualifies as (a type of) euphoria, of high intensity. Bliss is defined as "Perfect happiness; great joy:"[49] where euphoria is "A feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness:"

  1. ^ a b Georgiadis, J. R.; Kringelbach, M. L. (2012). "The human sexual response cycle: brain imaging evidence linking sex to other pleasures" (PDF). Progress in Neurobiology. 98 (1): 49–81. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.05.004. ISSN 1873-5118. PMID 22609047. Strong feelings of pleasure and euphoria, as well as marked alterations in cognitive processing, self-referential thought, and physiological arousal are defining features of sexual consummation, especially during orgasm (Mah and Binik, 2001). These processes promote inter-individual intimacy and approach, and degrade the interference of external distractors (Koukounas and McCabe, 2001), both of which are necessary requirements to engage in sexual activity (and procreate)....
    ... Many individuals experience a particularly euphoric response to music, sometimes described as shivers-down-the-spine or chills, which perhaps is not unrelated to the orgasm phase of the sexual pleasure cycle....
    ... Perhaps even more interesting is the finding that activity in VS/NAcc, medial and mid-anterior OFC strongly correlated with the intensity of chills related to musical pleasure (Blood and Zatorre, 2001). Further studies showed that VS/NAcc dopamine release were specifically linked to the peak of perceived chills and not to their anticipation (Salimpoor et al., 2011), and there was an absence of activity in VS/NAcc and OFC when exposed to a novel, but liked, pop song (Berns et al., 2010). The peaks in the medial and mid-anterior OFC are very similar to those found during orgasms or during hedonic processing of foods....
    ... Drugs of abuse that enhance sympathetic arousal also typically induce euphoria, which is described as intensely pleasurable, especially in drug naı¨ve participants (Vollm et al., 2004). In one fMRI study, participants rated feelings of high, low, rush, and craving after cocaine infusion (Breiter et al., 1997). Rush and high both peaked within 3 min after the volunteers received cocaine, after which these feelings dissipated (though rush more quickly than high). Because of the strong overlap in rush and high ratings, only rush was used as regressors in the brain activity analysis. Thus, areas correlating with rush are no only likely to reflect general arousal effects (e.g. elevated heart rate, sweating), but also the euphoria associated with high. The overlap between areas related to cocaine rush/high and sexual arousal (genital stimulation) is striking, and includes aMCC, anterior and posterior insula, ventral pallidum/basal forebrain, and frontal operculum/vPMC. In addition, the amygdala showed prolonged decreased activity after cocaine infusion, similar to decreased activity during sexual genital stimulation (Georgi dis et al., 2009, 2010a).
  2. ^ Kay, Jerald; First, Michael B.; Lieberman, Jeffrey A. (2015). Psychiatry, 2 Volume Set. John Wiley & Sons. p. 563. ISBN 9781118845479. Euphoria is defined as intense elation often associated with feelings of grandeur. Euphoria, elation, exaltation, and ecstasy are synonyms that describe an exceedingly pleasurable mood. These emotions can be a part of normal experience. Euphoric states are achieved during sexual pleasure, when one is in love, after achieving a long-sought goal, or just when life is going well. Religious experiences can also result in feelings of euphoria. When euphoria goes beyond the range of normal experience and becomes a psychiatric problem, mania or hypomania is present.
  3. ^ a b Brooks, Rob (2011). Sex, Genes & Rock 'n' Roll: How Evolution Has Shaped the Modern World. UPNE. p. 119. ISBN 9781611682373. Dopamine is an astonishingly versatile neurotransmitter that is involved, among other things, in the brain's systems of motivation, desire and reward. Modern brain-imaging technologies show that when people look at pictures of their lovers the most active parts of the brain are areas especially sensitive to dopamine. Dopamine is probably involved in the wonderfully euphoric feeling we get when we are falling in love, rewarding us as we bond with somebody that might be a good partner. Dopamine is also involved in the euphoria of orgasm. Think of this orgasmic high as an evolved reward for having sex. The dopamine-mediated processes in the brain that regulate pair-bonding behavior and love are also crucial in the development of drug addiction. Drugs like cocaine and amphetamines, and quite possibly alcohol, nicotine and heroin appear to co-opt some of the reward pathways the brain uses to form and reinforce bonds with lovers and friends.
  4. ^ Young, John K. (2012). Hunger, Thirst, Sex, and Sleep: How the Brain Controls Our Passions. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 82. ISBN 9781442218253. One of the welcome "side effects" that can be experienced following lovemaking is a sensation of euphoria and even a diminished sensation of the aches and pains that plague us as we get older. Are these sensations real or only subjective? In fact, these welcome changes in mood following sex in humans have been detected and objectively studied in rats. Following sex, rats also display a diminished ability to react to annoying stimuli such as small electrical shocks to the tail.
  5. ^ Jankowiak, William; Paladino, Thomas (2013). "1. Desiring Sex, Longing for Love: A Tripartite Conundrum". In Jankowiak, William R. (ed.). Intimacies: Love and Sex Across Cultures. Columbia University Press. p. 13. ISBN 9780231508766. "Passionate love" refers to any intense attraction that involves the intrusive thinking about one person within an erotic context with the expectation that the feeling will endure for some time into the future. Helen Fisher (2004:416-17) lists the thirteen psychophysiological characteristics often associated with being in passionate love (also see Harris 1995:86). De Munck reports in chapter 3 that these characteristics are "(1) thinking that the beloved is unique; (2) paying attention to the positive qualities of the beloved"; (3) feelings of "exhilaration," "increased energy," "heart pounding," and intense emotional arousal induced by being in contact with or thinking of the beloved; (4) feeling even more connected to the beloved in times of adversity; (5) "intrusive thinking"; (6) feeling possessive and dependent on the beloved; (7) "desiring 'union' with the beloved; (8) having a strong sense of altruism and concern for the beloved; (9) reordering one's priorities to favor the beloved; (10) feeling sexual attraction for the beloved"; (11) ranking "emotional union" as taking "precedence over sexual desire." In addition, those feeling passionate love find that the feeling of passionate love is "involuntary" and not controllable and that passionate love is generally temporary (i.e., it can "range from a few days to a few years; but the limited duration is one distinguishing feature from companionship love" [Steve Meyers, personal communication, 2007]).
    These emotional states may also be manifested behaviorally as "labile psychophysical responses to the loved person, including exhilaration, euphoria, buoyancy, spiritual feelings, increased energy, sleeplessness, loss of appetite, shyness, awkwardness . . . flushing, stammering, gazing, prolonged eye contact, dilated pupils . . . accelerated breathing, anxiety . . . in the presence of the loved person" (Fisher 1998:32). The presence of similar neurological mechanisms and brain patterns may account for the ability to readily identify when someone is romantically involved or erotically excited (Fisher 1998:32; Fisher 1995).
  6. ^ Lopez, Shane J. (2011). The Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology. John Wiley & Sons. p. not numbered. ISBN 9781444357929. Euphoria has been used to describe many things, such as the experience of eating chocolate, the effects of being in intense romantic love, the effects of drug use, or simply a state of general well-being. Aron and colleagues described the euphoric effects of intense romantic love as similar to those of cocaine: exhilaration, excessive energy, sleeplessness, and loss of appetite. Research done by Drevets and colleagues involved administering dextroamphetamine (AMPH) (thought to produce euphoria) to participants. The patients described the sensation as a rush of very good feeling they had never before experienced.... Definitions of euphoria can take the form of an elusive metaphor, or can be as technical as the production of certain endorphins.
    In 1963, euphoria was described in technical psychiatric terms in the Encyclopedia of Mental Health as a lack of "reality testing" in an individual. When someone who is expected to feel pain, either mentally or physically, feels none, the experience is considered deviant from the social norm and therefore pathological. Euphoria, in its technical psychiatric definition, therefore, is a false happiness, one that does not match cultural expectations.
    Trance channeling, a phenomenon unique to late twentieth century American culture, is the communication of information through a human from a source that exists on a different dimension of reality than ours, which can produce feelings of euphoria.... Meditation, a complex mental process that involves changes in cognition, sensory perception, affect, and autonomic activity, is a practice that is also often associated with the experience of euphoria.
  7. ^ Kissin, Benjamin (2012). Conscious and Unconscious Programs in the Brain. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 333. ISBN 9781461321873. Depending on the associated mechanisms involved, highly pleasurable activity can produce a sedated euphoria (e.g., marijuana) or alternatively a highly excitatory euphoria (e.g., orgasm). In each case, the resultant euphorias are qualitatively similar even though one is associated with a high level of relaxation and the other with a high level of excitement.
    A similar situation applies with the use of heroin and cocaine, both of which when injected intravenously produce an immediate state of euphoria. However, the feeling associated with heroin is characterized by extreme relaxation whereas that with cocaine is characterized by extreme stimulation. Yet paradoxically, both types of addicts describe the "rush" of either heroin or cocaine injection as being similar to the feeling of an orgasm.
  8. ^ Leigh, Hoyle (2013). The Patient: Biological, Psychological, and Social Dimensions of Medical Practice. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 103. ISBN 9781468449556. At the opposite pole of the depressive syndrome in mood is the manic syndrome. Just as sadness and grief are experienced by most people from time to time, so do pleasurable moods of euphoria and elation, short of mania or hypomania, fall within the normal range of mood. In euphoria, there is a positive feeling of emotional and physical well-being. In elation, there is a definite feeling of joy with increase in self-confidence, motor activity, and energy level....
    ... The patient may describe the elevated mood as euphoric, unusually good, or high.
  9. ^ Ahmed, Serge H.; Guillem, Karine; Vandaele, Youna (2013). "Sugar addiction: pushing the drug-sugar analogy to the limit". Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care. 16 (4): 434–439. doi:10.1097/MCO.0b013e328361c8b8. ISSN 1473-6519. PMID 23719144. Drug-induced changes in neuronal and synaptic activity in different brain regions and circuits lead in turn to alterations in behavioral dispositions (e.g., aggressiveness, risk-taking), mood (e.g., euphoria) and other mental functions (e.g., judgement, decision-making) [30]. At high doses, these psychoactive effects may considerably impair normal functions (e.g., distorted perception; altered judgement; diminished self-control) and can be hazardous to both the self and others. In contrast, other psychoactive effects can be advantageous or functional under some circumstances (e.g., disinhibition of sex) and, of course, even highly stimulating and rewarding (e.g., euphoria) [31].
  10. ^ Sex and Society. Marshall Cavendish. 2010. p. 514. ISBN 9780761479079. Masturbation that leads to orgasm has many of the same benefits as any other sexual activity. Many sexologists believe that masturbation can help to alleviate depression and release tension due to stress because at the release of chemicals such as oxytocin, which can relax the body and ease the mind and even cause a sense of euphoria.
  11. ^ "Have You Euphoria?". Popular Science Monthly. McClure, Phillips and Company: 79. 1920. It takes a doctor to give a high-sounding name to a well known phenomenon. "Euphoria" means "feeling fit." It is as much a physiological fact as scarlet fever.
    Nature makes it worth while to be alive simply through euphoria. The joy of making a good tennis stroke, the delight that a woodsman gets in the open air, the artist's rhapsody—all are due to euphoria. Why do we drink alcohol—when we can get it— or smoke tobacco? To affect euphoria. When a lunatic thinks that he is Napoleon and demands the homage due an emperor, he has euphoria in its worst form.
    Too little is known about euphoria. Since it can he affected by drugs and chemicals, who known but it may have its seat in some gland?
  12. ^ Garrett, Bob (2014). "Glossary". Brain & Behavior: An Introduction to Biological Psychology. SAGE Publications. p. 521. ISBN 9781483312415. [E]uphoria[:] A sense of happiness or ecstasy; many abused drugs produce euphoria.
  13. ^ Encyclopedia of Behavioral Neuroscience, Three-Volume Set, 1- 3. Elsevier. 2010. p. 209. ISBN 9780080914558. Euphoria — A feeling of well-being or elation, opposite to dysphoria.
    Euphoria-like — A treatment-induced (e.g., drug-induced) hedonic state resembling the human hedonic experience or euphoria/pleasure/reward.
  14. ^ Euphoria, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
  15. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
  16. ^ Bearn J, O'Brien M (2015). ""Addicted to Euphoria": The History, Clinical Presentation, and Management of Party Drug Misuse". Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 120: 205–33. doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2015.02.005. PMID 26070759. Eating, drinking, sexual activity, and parenting invoke pleasure, an emotion that promotes repetition of these behaviors, are essential for survival. Euphoria, a feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness, is an amplification of pleasure, aspired to one's essential biological needs that are satisfied. People use party drugs as a shortcut to euphoria. Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), γ-hydroxybutyric acid, and ketamine fall under the umbrella of the term "party drugs," each with differing neuropharmacological and physiological actions.
  17. ^ Schultz W (2015). "Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data" (PDF). Physiological Reviews. 95 (3): 853–951. doi:10.1152/physrev.00023.2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2015. The feeling of high that is experienced by sports people during running or swimming, the lust evoked by encountering a ready mating partner, a sexual orgasm, the euphoria reported by drug users, and the parental affection to babies constitute different forms (qualities) rather than degrees of pleasure (quantities).
  18. ^ a b "Key DSM-IV Mental Status Exam Phrases". Gateway Psychiatric Services. Mood and Affect. Archived from the original on 2013-11-13. Retrieved 2014-02-17. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ Johnson, Bankole A. (2010). Addiction Medicine: Science and Practice. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 133. ISBN 9781441903389. It has been observed that drugs of abuse as diverse as alcohol, barbiturates, opiates, and psychomotor stimulants all share a profile of psychoactive effects characterized as euphoria. It is generally accepted that euphoria is at least a partial explanation why these drugs are abused.
  20. ^ Cohen EE, Ejsmond-Frey R, Knight N, Dunbar RI (2010). "Rowers' high: behavioural synchrony is correlated with elevated pain thresholds". Biol. Lett. 6 (1): 106–8. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0670. PMC 2817271. PMID 19755532. This heightened effect from synchronized activity may explain the sense of euphoria experienced during other social activities (such as laughter, music-making and dancing) that are involved in social bonding in humans and possibly other vertebrates.
  21. ^ Cite error: The named reference NHM-DA stims, opioids, nicotine, cannabinoids, inhalants, corticoids was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  22. ^ Landtblom, A.-M.; Lindehammar, H.; Karlsson, H.; Craig, A. D. Bud (2011). "Insular cortex activation in a patient with "sensed presence"/ecstatic seizures". Epilepsy & Behavior: E&B. 20 (4): 714–718. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2011.01.031. ISSN 1525-5069. PMID 21440512. Seizures with an aura of a "sensed presence," a religious emotion, or feelings of euphoria (ecstatic seizures) are characterized by heightened self-awareness.
  23. ^ Berridge, Kent C; Kringelbach, Morten L (2011). "Building a neuroscience of pleasure and well-being". Psychology of well-being. 1 (1): 1–3. doi:10.1186/2211-1522-1-3. ISSN 2211-1522. PMC 3274778. PMID 22328976. Ecstatic epileptic seizures are a rare but compelling epileptic entity. During the first seconds of these seizures, ecstatic auras provoke feelings of well-being, intense serenity, bliss, and "enhanced self-awareness."{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  24. ^ Tényi, Dalma; Rajna, Péter; Janszky, József; Horváth, Zsuzsanna; Tényi, Tamás; Gyimesi, Csilla (2014). "[Dostoyevsky's epilepsy in the light of recent neurobiological data]". Ideggyógyászati Szemle. 67 (1–2): 52–55. ISSN 0019-1442. PMID 24654447. Since the 1960s several theories have developed on the epilepsy of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky. Probably the most exciting and still actual question might be the subject of the "ecstatic aura", he described in his novels based on his own experiences. During this extremely rare seizure onset the patients experience a strong sense of happiness, harmony and wholeness.
  25. ^ a b Mack, Avram H.; Brady, Kathleen T.; Miller, Sheldon I.; Frances, Richard J. (2016). Clinical Textbook of Addictive Disorders, Fourth Edition. Guilford Publications. p. 249. ISBN 9781462521708.
  26. ^ McCuistion, Linda E.; Kee, Joyce LeFever; Hayes, Evelyn R. (2014). Pharmacology: A Patient-Centered Nursing Process Approach. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 54. ISBN 9780323293488.
  27. ^ Doweiko, Harold E. (2014). Concepts of Chemical Dependency. Cengage Learning. p. 79. ISBN 9781285457178.
  28. ^ Galizio, Mark; Maisto, Stephen A. (2013). Determinants of Substance Abuse: Biological , Psychological, and Environmental Factors. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 205. ISBN 9781475799903.
  29. ^ Psychotropic Agents: Part III: Alcohol and Psychotomimetics, Psychotropic Effects of Central Acting Drugs. Springer Science & Business Media. 2012. p. 420. ISBN 9783642677700.
  30. ^ McCrady, Barbara S.; Epstein, Elizabeth E. (2013). Addictions: A Comprehensive Guidebook. OUP USA. p. 163. ISBN 9780199753666.
  31. ^ Ruiz, Pedro; Strain, Eric C. (2011). Lowinson and Ruiz's Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 258. ISBN 9781605472775.
  32. ^ Staats, Peter S.; Silverman, Sanford M. (2016). Controlled Substance Management in Chronic Pain: A Balanced Approach. Springer. p. 77. ISBN 9783319309644.
  33. ^ Berridge, Kent C; Kringelbach, Morten L (2011). "Building a neuroscience of pleasure and well-being". Psychology of well-being. 1 (1): 1–3. doi:10.1186/2211-1522-1-3. ISSN 2211-1522. PMC 3274778. PMID 22328976. Ecstatic epileptic seizures are a rare but compelling epileptic entity. During the first seconds of these seizures, ecstatic auras provoke feelings of well-being, intense serenity, bliss, and "enhanced self-awareness."{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  34. ^ Tényi, Dalma; Rajna, Péter; Janszky, József; Horváth, Zsuzsanna; Tényi, Tamás; Gyimesi, Csilla (2014). "[Dostoyevsky's epilepsy in the light of recent neurobiological data]". Ideggyógyászati Szemle. 67 (1–2): 52–55. ISSN 0019-1442. PMID 24654447. Since the 1960s several theories have developed on the epilepsy of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky. Probably the most exciting and still actual question might be the subject of the "ecstatic aura", he described in his novels based on his own experiences. During this extremely rare seizure onset the patients experience a strong sense of happiness, harmony and wholeness.
  35. ^ Berridge, Kent C; Kringelbach, Morten L (2011). "Building a neuroscience of pleasure and well-being". Psychology of well-being. 1 (1): 1–3. doi:10.1186/2211-1522-1-3. ISSN 2211-1522. PMC 3274778. PMID 22328976.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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  38. ^ Tényi, Dalma; Rajna, Péter; Janszky, József; Horváth, Zsuzsanna; Tényi, Tamás; Gyimesi, Csilla (2014). "[Dostoyevsky's epilepsy in the light of recent neurobiological data]". Ideggyógyászati Szemle. 67 (1–2): 52–55. ISSN 0019-1442. PMID 24654447.
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