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Verbal memory is a term used in cognitive psychology, defined as the ability to encode, store and retrieve information relating to the acoustic (sounds) qualities of numbers, letters and words. This definition also includes any other abstractions involving language and is different from non-verbal memory, which looks at how information is encoded, stored and retrieved in any modality not related to language (spatial information, for instance). Encoding refers to the ability to alter information into a usable form by the brain (in this case, verbal encoding). Storage refers to the ability to hold information in one’s brain for later use and retrieval is the ability to recall previously stored memories. Verbal information processing is possible at short time intervals, in the order of seconds (short-term memory) and at long time intervals, from minutes to years (long-term memory). The distinction of verbal memory as separate from other forms of memory is evidenced by neuroimaging studies that show different areas of activation for verbal information compared to visual and spatial information.

Verbal Memory Research

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An issue surrounding short- and long-term memory is that research in this area uses mostly verbal information as a means to test hypotheses [1]. That is, there is a distinction between the use of verbal and visuospatial material in this research area. So when referring to short- or long-term memory, it could be mistaken for verbal short- or long-term memory. Moreover, research has been conducted into the way visual information [1] [2] [3], spatial information [4] and olfactory information [5] is encoded, stored and retrieved; terms that also fit under the short- and long-term memory umbrella. Consequently, the current page will specifically focus on verbal material processing in short-term and long-term memory. This distinction is further emphasised by Alan Baddeley’s research into working memory. In his model, he proposes a distinction between verbal and visuospatial processing at short-time scales (order of seconds). A phonological loop deals with the manipulation of verbal material whilst a visuospatial sketchpad deals with visual and spatial information [6].

Verbal Short-Term Memory

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Encoding

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Encoding of verbal short-term memory occurs acoustically. That is, sounds (verbal content) that are similar to one another will be more easily forgotten in short-term memory compared to sounds that are not linked in this way (B, C and T versus X, Y and Z)[7]. This idea extends to more complex phonetic constructions such as language, where words are linked semantically as well as acoustically. Research has shown that participants perform significantly poorer at retrieving acoustically similar words than semantically similar words from a short-term store when asked to repeat a list of recently memorised words [8] . This effect also occurs in the situation where verbal information is presented visually, reiterating the notion that poorer retrieval is a direct consequence of the encoding process rather than the modality of presentation [7] .

Storage

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Verbal information in short-term memory is stored consciously. That is, the participant will be aware of the information that is held in mind and once an item cannot be retrieved, it is said to have decayed. There is a limited duration and capacity for which verbal information can be kept in mind without rehearsal before this process of decay becomes evident. Decay begins to occur almost immediately (around 2 seconds after stimulus disappearance) and lasts for 20 seconds before a list of items cannot be recalled[9] . The capacity of verbal short-term memory has also been evidenced by research. That is, the amount of information that can be kept in consciousness at any one time has been shown to be limited. Originally thought to be around seven words and nine numbers[10], research has more recently shown that the capacity for words is in fact much smaller, around 4 chunks of information[11]. Other research[12] has also shown that the capacity for numbers is longer than words.

Retrieval

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Due to the nature of decay for verbal information in short-term memory, there are effects that increase (and decrease) one’s ability to retrieve recently memorised information. The two most well-known are word length[13][14] and word frequency effects [15]. The word-length effect follows the notion that longer words will take longer to process and thus will have a greater likelihood of decay by the time it comes to retrieval. The word-frequency effect notes that words of high frequency used within a language will have a greater chance of being retrieved from memory than rarer words.

Verbal Long-Term Memory

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Encoding

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Verbal information is encoded semantically into long-term memory. Research by Baddeley[16] showed that participants performed worse on a memory task that involved learning of semantically linked words than acoustically linked words in long-term memory. This experiment formed part two of his papers showing a distinction between short-term and long-term verbal information encoding.

Storage

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As with short-term memory, there is a duration and a capacity for which verbal information can be stored at longer time periods. Although not much research has been conducted into this area due to the difficulties with testing long-term memory effects, findings suggest that verbal information in long-term memory lasts for many years. Research by Bahrick[17] found that participants, using free recall, were still able to name classmates 48 years after graduation. The capacity for verbal information is also robust, with research suggesting that humans maintain an unlimited capacity.

Retrieval

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Verbal information is also subject to retrieval effects in long-term memory. It has been shown by Kensinger[18] that the retrieval process for verbal information differs depending on the type of emotion evoked. That is, words that are emotionally negative are more easily retrieved than words that are emotionally neutral. Moreover, it has been shown that the vividness (the detail) is better remembered than neutral words [19].

Neural Correlates

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There is a distinction between verbal and visual memory processing in the brain. Research has shown that verbal content is mostly left-lateralised[20]. Active regions include Broca’s area[21], an important component for refreshing a short-term memory trace via rehearsal. Research has also been conducted into potential differences between short- and long-term memory processing in the brain, with results suggesting that similar neural networks are involved for encoding, storage and retrieval[22].

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b Luck, Steven J.; Vogel, Edward K. (1997). "The capacity of visual working memory for features and conjunctions". Nature. 39 (6657): 279–281. doi:10.1038/36846. PMID 9384378. S2CID 205025290.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  2. ^ Alvarez, G.A.; Cavanagh, P. (2004). "The Capacity of Visual Short-Term Memory is Set Both by Visual Information Load and by Number of Objects". Psychological Science. 15 (2): 106–111. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01502006.x. PMID 14738517. S2CID 2286443.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  3. ^ Brady, Timothy F.; Konkle, Talia; Alvarez, George A.; Oliva, Aude (2008). "Visual long-term memory has a massive storage capacity for object details". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (38): 14325–14329. doi:10.1073/pnas.0803390105. PMC 2533687. PMID 18787113.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  4. ^ Parmentier, Fabrice B. R.; Elford, Greg; Maybery, Murray (2005). "Transitional Information in Spatial Serial Memory: Path Characteristics Affect Recall Performance". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 31 (3): 412–427. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.3.412. PMID 15910128.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  5. ^ Engen, Trygg; Ross, Bruce M. (1973). "Long-term memory of odors with and without verbal descriptions". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 100 (2): 221–227. doi:10.1037/h0035492. PMID 4745452.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  6. ^ Bower, G. H. (1974). The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-543308-2.
  7. ^ a b Conrad, R. (1964). "Acoustic Confusions In Immediate Memory". British Journal of Psychology. 55: 75–84. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1964.tb00899.x. S2CID 144989534.
  8. ^ Baddeley, A. D. (1966). "Short-term memory for word sequences as a function of acoustic, semantic and formal similarity". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 18 (4): 362–365. doi:10.1080/14640746608400055. PMID 5956080. S2CID 32498516.
  9. ^ Peterson, Lloyd; Peterson, Margaret Jean (1959). "Short-term retention of individual verbal items". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 58 (3): 193–198. doi:10.1037/h0049234. PMID 14432252.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  10. ^ Miller, G. A. (1956). "The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information". Psychological Review. 63 (2): 81–97. doi:10.1037/h0043158. PMID 13310704.
  11. ^ Cowan, N. (2001). "The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 24 (1): 87–114. doi:10.1017/S0140525X01003922. PMID 11515286. S2CID 8739159.
  12. ^ Crannell, C. W.; Parrish, J. M. (1957). "A Comparison of Immediate Memory Span for Digits, Letters, and Words". The Journal of Psychology. 44 (2): 319–327. doi:10.1080/00223980.1957.9713089.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  13. ^ Baddeley, Alan D.; Thomson, Neil; Buchanan, Mary (1975). "Word length and the structure of short-term memory". Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. 14 (6): 575–589. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(75)80045-4.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  14. ^ Campoy, G. (2008). "The effect of word length in short-term memory: Is rehearsal necessary?". The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 61 (5): 724–734. doi:10.1080/17470210701402364. PMID 17853214. S2CID 12127682.
  15. ^ Roodenrys, S. (2002). "Word-frequency and phonological-neighborhood effects on verbal short-term memory". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 28 (6): 1019–1034. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.28.6.1019. PMID 12450329. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ Baddeley, A. D. (1966). "The influence of acoustic and semantic similarity on long-term memory for word sequences". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 18 (4): 302–309. doi:10.1080/14640746608400047. PMID 5956072. S2CID 39981510.
  17. ^ Bahrick, H. P.; Bahrick, P. O.; Wittlinger, R. P. (1975). "Fifty years of memory for names and faces: A cross-sectional approach". Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 104: 54–75. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.104.1.54.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  18. ^ Kensinger, Elizabeth A.; Corkin, Suzanne (2003). "Effect of Negative Emotional Content on Working Memory and Long-Term Memory". Emotion. 3 (4): 378–393. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.3.4.378. PMID 14674830.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  19. ^ Kensinger, Elizabeth A.; Corkin, Suzanne (2003). "Memory enhancement for emotional words: Are emotional words more vividly remembered than neutral words?". Memory & Cognition. 31 (8): 1169–1180. doi:10.3758/BF03195800. PMID 15058678. S2CID 17215004.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  20. ^ Habib, Reza; Nyberg, Lars; Tulving, Endel (2003). "Hemispheric asymmetries of memory: the HERA model revisited". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 7 (6): 241–245. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00110-4. PMID 12804689. S2CID 15532503.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  21. ^ Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1994). "Functional mapping of verbal memory and language". Trends in Neurosciences. 17 (3): 109–115. doi:10.1016/0166-2236(94)90119-8. PMID 7515526. S2CID 4011703.
  22. ^ Andreasen, N. C.; O'Leary, D. S.; Arndt, S.; Cizadlo, T.; Hurtig, R.; Rezai, K.; Watkins, G. L.; Ponto, L. L.; Hichwa, R. D. (1995). "Short-term and long-term verbal memory: a positron emission tomography study". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 92 (11): 5111–5115. doi:10.1073/pnas.92.11.5111. PMC 41858. PMID 7761457.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
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