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The Munich Agreement[edit]
Due to the increasing presence of Germans occupying Austria in March 1938, Adolf Hitler shifted his focus to Sudetenland, a minute portion of Czechoslovakia consisting primarily of Germans. The migration of Germans into Czechoslovakia is mostly attributed to the formation of the Sudeten German Party established in 1931 under Konrad Henlein, who aspired to gain the region under German rule [1]. Although the party was not officially recognized by the Czechoslovak government, the Sudetenland German Party was highly favored among Sudeten Germans.
Reaction to Germany’s advances into Czechoslovakia was predominantly negative as a result of the land’s significant amount of natural resources, industrial, and domestic sectors of its economy, like its banking system. This prompted Czechoslovakian president Edvard Beneš to station troops in the mountains of Sudetenland to deter further unwarranted expansions. Nevertheless, as the crisis continued to grow and fears of war began circulating around Europe, Great Britain and France began discussing diplomatic measures to defuse the situation. To this end, British Prime Minister sent a telegram to Hitler asking for meeting to discuss a feasible, peaceful solution. On September 15, Hitler and Chamberlain officially convened in Berchtesgaden. During this meeting, Hitler attempted to compel Chamberlain to concede Germany’s full control over Sudetenland, citing oppression of Sudeten Germans. Chamberlain, unable to comply with Hitler’s demands, returned to deliberate with his Cabinet in London. Hitler did, however, agree to refrain from engaging militarily in Sudetenland.
Despite Chamberlain’s prolonging in preventing German control of Sudetenland, he was authorized by the Cabinet to yield Sudetenland to Germany, with French approval. On September 19, ambassadors from France and Great Britain met with Czechoslovak government to finalize the concession of Sudetenland, an area where Germans comprised over 50% of the population [2]. However, Hitler remained dissatisfied with the conditions of the Anglo-French solution. In response, Hitler demanded that German troops be given access to occupy Sudetenland, non-Germans would be banished, and that Hungary and Poland surrender territories as well <ref. Astounded, Chamberlain initially refused, prompting Britain and France to begin war preparations. At the time, Germans were not receptive to the idea of more warfare, so Hitler sent a letter to Chamberlain ensuring the safety of Czechoslovakia if Sudetenland was given to German. Chamberlain, desperate to prevent war, replied by stating that he was willing to continue negotiations and enlisted the help of Italian leader Benito Mussolini to further persuade Hitler.
On September 29, Chamberlain, Hitler, and Mussolini were joined by French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier to form an official agreement. Though deliberations continued throughout the day, the final language contained in the agreement was very similar to Hitler’s demands. In effect, the agreement authorized Germany to annex Sudetenland. In return, this would mark the end of German expansion into other European nations. This agreement is known as the Munich Agreement, named after the place in which it was created. The treaty was signed by 1:00 AM the next day, allowing German troops to begin entering Sudetenland on October 1, ending on October 10 [3]. The Czechoslovak delegation, who were excluded from deliberations, were displeased with the agreement but were obligated to concur since British and French officials stated that if a war were to erupt, they would be held accountable.
Demands for Sudeten Autonomy[edit]
Sudeten and Carpathian Germans believed Czechoslovakia were instilling much oppression and hatred toward a sizeable German minority. Therefore, the notion of Sudeten autonomy began to arise. Moreover, due to the insurmountable German majority and distinct culture in Sudetenland, most argued that Sudetenland should control its own political agenda. On the other hand, President Beneš refused to capitulate since it would mean surrendering some of the most critical aspects of Czechoslovakia’s industrial and economic sectors that were heavily relied on to achieve stability in the region [4] Undoubtedly, Hitler’s staunch rhetoric regarding the unification of all Germans in Europe facilitated more radicalization and an inclination on Germans residing in Sudetenland to promote extreme right-wing nationalism.
Pro-Nazi leader Konrad Henlein in Czechoslovakia was content with the numerous demands for Sudeten autonomy and recognition by Czechoslovakia’s president Beneš. The subtle advances made by Germans into Sudetenland contributed to the Czech government imposing military crackdowns which aggravated the situation. Moreover, violent conflicts arose between German and Czech civilians, leaving many people wounded and dozens deceased [5]. Henlein’s ‘8-point plan for introducing the means by which Sudeten autonomy would be conceived was unilaterally rejected by President Edvard Beneš [6]. Furthermore, Czechoslovakian troops began to congregate at the western border between Czechoslovakia and Germany due to erroneous reports that German troops were accumulating at the border.
In actuality, there were no German tanks stationed at the border [7]. German engineer tests concluded that the border was so impermeable that Germany would suffer “disastrous” consequences, according to Speer [8]. This only led to an increasing presence of Czech soldiers in Sudetenland which bolstered tensions between Germany and Czechoslovakia in regards to the sovereignty of the region.
Division of Czechoslovakia in Mid-Post War Setting[edit]
There are several theories surrounding the possible causes for the ultimate partition of Czechoslovakia. The first one being attributed to historical reasons, namely, that the nation was composed of two distinguishable groups: Czechs and Slovaks. Even though the country existed as a single, unified unit for 75 years, it was simply a façade facilitated by fears of German and Hungarian irredentism and Soviet intervention. Historians assert that if it weren’t for these reasons, the nation would have split much earlier[9].
The second reason is the staggering differences in the nations’ economies. The Czech Republic, for instance, had a much more developed economic system as compared to Slovak’s. The industrial sectors of the country were mostly located in the Czech Republic, since it was a primary manufacturer of weapons and artillery [10]. Slovakia, a much more rural area, therefore, would have more difficulty transitioning to an industrialized zone. Lastly, the political structure and the failed constitutional negotiations of the government led some Czechs and Slovaks to concur in separating. The constitution, adopted by the communist federalization of 1969, formed a bicameral legislature, one of which was based on proportional representation and the other on equal representation [11]. The 1969 constitution required a 60 percent majority in both houses in order to amend it. Because both sides wielded veto power, and Czechs preferred a more centralized political system while the Slovaks leaned more towards a confederal system, both sides deemed it necessary to partition the state.
Tensions between Germany and Czechoslovakia[edit]
According to New Statesman editor Martin Kingsley, over 75 million Germans occupied the area between Sudetenland and Czechoslovakia [12], preventing the Czechs from taking bold actions in suppressing activity near the border. In addition, Kingsley asserts that if mobilizations were to occur, that this would lead to war.
At this point, Czechoslovakia is virtually surrounded by hostile forces, with Hungary and Poland as neighbors. Although Hungary is not privy in attacking Czechoslovakia, Poland was more likely to be more malignant in the event of a German assault [13]. The Soviet Union would not begin war preparations unless France begins to do so, and if that were to occur, then Nazi Germany would be obligated to move soldiers to its western border.
Due to Hitler’s political and military pursuits of acquiring Sudetenland, it is critical to examine the intentions of the conflict from Germany’s perspective. According to Kingsley, this can be underscored through various events in German history. First, the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss in 1934 [14] and the impending trial of Schuschnigg, the Austrian chancellor in 1938, are tantamount to arguably grotesque behavior stemming from fascism.
Expulsion of Germans and Hungarians[edit]
During the postwar period, Czechoslovakia faced a significant challenge, namely how the country would address the excessive levels of unwanted ethnic groups in the state? Some of these groups were responsible for starting WWII. In essence, Czechoslovakia incurred a “cleansing crisis.” To this end, President Edvard Benes issued a decree proclaiming that Germans and Magyars were to be stripped of Czechoslovak citizenship [15]. The decree did, however, establish exemptions for Germans and Magyars who officially registered and identified as Czechs or Slovaks.
Additionally, an exodus of Germans from Czechoslovakia ensued. German nations known as the Reichsdeutsche and the Volksdeutsche migrated into areas known as post-war Germany and post-war Austria. The total number of Germans involved in the movement amounted to at least 12 million people, with some estimates reaching 14 million, making the movement the largest transfer of any ethnic group in modern history [16].
Mandatory migrations occurred throughout Europe in 1945. The Soviet Red Army continued to advance westwards, causing millions of ethinic Germans to become refugees [17].
The mass migrations also contributed to several casualties, from approximately 500,000 to 2 million Germans [18]. These deaths were attributed to deaths from famine, illness, and acts of violence. Out of the 12 million Germans which migrated from Europe, about 3 million originated from Czechoslovakia, or 25% of the total migrations. Lastly, as the expulsions came to an end, only 200,000 Germans remained in Czechoslovakia, with 20,000 residing in Slovakia [19].
The displacement of Sudeten Germans was greatly enhanced by the provisions of the Potsdam Conference. The agreement, formed by the three superpowers, the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union in 1945, reestablished national borders and authorized certain expulsions of Germans from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary [20]. The expulsions were finished by 1950, resulting in the number of ethnic Germans remaining in Eastern Europe at 2.6 billion [21].
On the other hand, the Slovak portion of Czechoslovakia was predominantly occupied by Hungarians, another ethnic group which needed to be addressed. The Vienna Arbitration of 1938 and the annexation of southern parts of Slovakia significantly worsened relations with Czechs and Hungarians. Countries like Prague and Bratislava considered Hungarians guilty of treason against the Czechoslovak Republic, the pre-Munich crisis, the Vienna Arbitration, and finally the Munich Agreement, condoning fascism, and working cooperatively with Nazi Germany to promote violence against Czechs and Slovaks during the war.
Hungarians living in postwar Czechoslovakia was largely seen as the Slovak problem, due to the fact that 600,000-650,000 of Czechoslovakia’s Magyars lived in the southeastern areas of Slovakia in 1946 [22]. The Kosice Program of 1945, which stipulated the political and social paradigm for Hungarians still residing in Czechoslovakia after the war, stated that Hungarians, who migrated to Czechoslovakia during the occupation in 1938, were forced to leave immediately [23]. Otherwise, Hungarians who came to the country prior to 1938 were allowed to keep their citizenship if they were able to prove their allegiance to Slovakia, the Czech Republic, and democracy. Simultaneously, the Prague and Bratislava governments required that the “truly democratic” Hungarians cleanse themselves of the Magyar minority consisting of the fascist and anti-Slovak factions.
References[edit]
- ^ http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/munich-pact-signed
- ^ http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/munich-pact-signed
- ^ http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/worldwarii/p/World-War-Ii-Munich-Agreement.htm
- ^ http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/munich-pact-signed
- ^ http://expelledgermans.org/sudetengermans
- ^ http://expelledgermans.org/sudetengermans
- ^ http://expelledgermans.org/sudetengermans
- ^ http://expelledgermans.org/sudetengermans
- ^ Eyal, Gil The Origins of Postcommunist Elites: From Prague Spring to the Breakup of Czechoslovakia
- ^ Eyal, Gil The Origins of Postcommunist Elites: From Prague Spring to the Breakup of Czechoslovakia
- ^ Eyal, Gil The Origins of Postcommunist Elites: From Prague Spring to the Breakup of Czechoslovakia
- ^ Martin, Kingsley The Czech crisis and the New Statesman
- ^ Martin, Kinglsey The Czech crisis and the New Statesman
- ^ Martin, Kingsley The Czech crisis and the New Statesman
- ^ Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna Negotiating Jewish belonging in postwar Slovakia
- ^ http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Expulsion
- ^ http://historiana.eu/case-study/sudeten-germans/why-sudeten-germans-migrated-1945#
- ^ http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Expulsion
- ^ Martin, Kingsley The Czech crisis and the New Statesman
- ^ http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Expulsion
- ^ http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Expulsion
- ^ Martin, Kingsley The Czech crisis and the New Statesman
- ^ Martin, Kingsley The Czech crisis and the New Statesman