User:Marcucmr/sandbox

Farming Systems in India

India is comprised of various farming systems that are strategically utilized, according to the locations where they are most suitable. The farming systems that significantly contribute to the domestic GDP of India are subsistence farming, organic farming, and industrial farming. Regions throughout India differ in types of farming they use; some are based on horticulture, ley farming, agroforestry, and many more. Due to India's geographical location, certain parts experience different climates, thus affecting each region's agricultural productivity differently. India is very dependent on its monsoon-based periodic rainfall. If it weren't for large government involvement in storage of water for agricultural irrigation, only some parts of India would receive rainfall throughout the year, making many other regions arid. Dependency on these monsoons is risky because there are great variations in the average amount of rainfall received by the various regions--from too much for most crops in the eastern Himalayas to never enough in Rajasthan. Season-to-season variations of rainfall are also significant and the consequences of these are bumper harvests and crop searing. For this reason, irrigation in India is one of the main priorities in Indian farming.

File:Namgyal india 1.jpg

Namgyal Monestary Institution

Overview

India agriculture has an extensive background which goes back to at least 10 thousand years. Currently the country holds the second position in agricultural production in the world. In 2007, agriculture and other industries such as lumbering and forestry made up more than 16% of India's GDP. Despite the steady decline in agriculture's contribution to the country's GDP, India agriculture is the biggest industry in the country and plays a key role in the socioeconomic growth of the country. India is the second biggest producer of wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane,silk, groundnuts, and dozens more. It is also the second biggest harvester of vegetables and fruit, representing 8.6% and 10.9% of overall production, respectively. The major fruits produced by India are mangoes, papayas, sapota, and bananas. India also has the biggest number of livestock in the world, holding 281 million. In 2008, the country housed the second largest number of cattle in the world with 175 million.

Brief History

Agriculture in India began in about 9000 BCE when Indians learned to cultivate plants and domesticate crops such as wheat, barley, and jujube and animals such as goat and sheep. Cotton was

cultivated around the 5th millennium BCE and became a well developed industry with the continuation of many methods of cotton spinning and fabrication into the modern industrialization of India. By 4500 BCE, the development of irrigation prospered the Indian continent. As a result, Indian civilization grew, leading to more planned settlements that made use of drainage and sewers and introduced the development of storage systems such as artificial reservoirs and canals, making irrigation much more sophisticated.

Around 200 CE, the Tamil people, who were an ethnic group native to Tamil, India, cultivated a vide variety of crops such as rice, sugarcane, black pepper, various grains, coconuts, beans, etc. The

spice trade gained momentum in Indian agriculture as spices native to India such as cinnamon and black pepper were being shipped to the Mediterranean. Crystallized sugar was discovered around 320 CE and soon after technology for sugar-refining developed.

As technologies were being further advanced, irrigation systems were introduced which gave rise to economic growth. The landscape was divided into agricultural ‘zones’, each producing rice, wheat

or millets. Rice production was dominant in Gujarat while wheat dominated north and central India. Other crops to be cultivated were introduced during this period such as tobacco, tea, coffee, pineapples and papaya, and many more.

From the 18th to the 20th century, India was under British control. The combination of various factors, especially the war in 1918 and being under British rule stagnated India’s agricultural economy.

Very few of India’s commercial crops such as cotton, indigo, opium, and rice made it to the global market. Food and nonfood outputs were declining as population was increasing, leaving India in an acute crisis. As the market for irrigation developed, community effort and private investment soared. This eventually helped get India’s agriculture back on its feet.

Since India’s independence, food and cash crop supply has greatly improved with the establishment of special programs such as The Grow More Food Campaign in the 1940’s and the Integrated Production Program in the 1950’s. Land reclamation and development, mechanization, electrification, and the use of chemicals soon followed agricultural development. Before India’s agricultural and economic fall under British control, India’s entire agriculture was practiced organically; materials like fertilizers and pesticides were obtained from plant and animal products. Organic farming shifted to chemical farming in the 1960’s when the Green Revolution became the government’s most important program for sustaining a rich and stable agricultural economy.

India has become of the largest producers of wheat, edible oil, potatoes, spices, rubber, tea, fishing, fruits, and vegetables in the world. Between 2003 and 2004, agriculture accounted for 22% of

India’s GDP and employed 58% of the country’s workforce and continues to hold these statistics today.

Climate Effect on Farming Systems

Each region in India has a specific soil and climate that is only suitable for certain types of farming. Many regions on the eastern side of India experience less than 50 cm of rain annually, so the

farming systems are restricted to cultivate crops that can withstand drought conditions and farmers are usually restricted to single cropping. Gujarat, Rajasthan, South Punjab, and northern Mahatashtra all experience this climate and each region grows such suitable crops like jowar, bajra, and peas. On the contrary, the western side of India has an average of 100-200 cm of rainfall annually without irrigation, so these regions have the ability to double crop. West Coast, West Bengal, parts of Bihar, U.P. and Assam are all associated with this climate and they grow crops such as rice, sugarcane, jute, and many more.

There are three different types of crops that are cultivated throughout India. Each type is grown in a different season depending on their

compatibility with certain weather. Kharif crops are grown at the start of the monsoon until the beginning of the winter, relatively from June to November. Examples of such crops are rice, corn, millets, groundnut, moong, and urad. Rabi crops are sown from the beginning of the winter until the beginning of the summer, generally from October to April. Crops grown at this time of year are wheat, barley, grain, oilseeds, and more. Zaid crops are rarer than the prior two because they are grown in the short season of the summer. Watermelons and cucumbers are examples of zaid crops.

Irrigation Farming

Irrigation farming is when crops are grown with the help of irrigation systems by supplying water to land through rivers, reservoirs, tanks, and wells. Over the last century, the population of India has tripled. With a growing population and increasing demand for food, the necessity of water for agricultural productivity is crucial. India faces the daunting task of increasing its food production by over 50 percent in the next two decades, and reaching towards the goal of sustainable agriculture requires a crucial role of water. Empirical evidence suggests that the increase in agricultural production in India is mostly due to irrigation; close to three fifths of India’s grain harvest comes from irrigated land. The land area under irrigation expanded from 22.6 million hectares in FY 1950 to 59 million hectares in FY 1990. The main strategy for these irrigation systems focuses on public investments in surface systems, such as large dams, long canals, and other large-scale works that require large amounts of capital.Between 1951 and 1990, nearly 1,350 large- and medium-sized irrigation works were started, and about 850 were completed. The most ambitious of these projects was the Indira Gandhi Canal. When completed, the Indira Gandhi Canal will be the world's longest irrigation canal. Beginning at the Hairke Barrage, a few kilometers below the borders of the Sutlej and Beas rivers in western Punjab, it will run south-southwest for 650 kilometers, ending in Rajasthan near Jaisalmer, close to the border with Pakistan. By the 1980’s a dramatic change had already taken place in this hot and inhospitable wasteland. As a result, desert dwellers switched from raising goats and sheep to raising wheat.

Problems From Irrigation

Because funds and technical expertise were in short supply, many projects moved forward at a slow pace, including The Indira Gandhi Canal project. The central government's transfer of huge amounts of water from Punjab to Haryana and Rajasthan contributed to the civil unrest in Punjab during the 1980s and early 1990’s. Problems also have arisen as ground water supplies used for irrigation face depletion. Drawing water off from one area to irrigate another often leads to increased salinity in the supply area with resultant effects on crop production there. Some areas receiving water through irrigation are poorly managed or inadequately designed; the result often is too much water and water-logged fields incapable of production. To alleviate this problem, more emphasis is being placed on using irrigation water to spray fields rather than allowing it to flow through ditches. Another major problem has been the displacement of thousands of people, usually poor people, by large hydroelectric projects. Critics also claim that the projects are damaging to the ecology. Smaller projects and such traditional methods for irrigation as tanks and wells are seen as having less serious impact.

Geography of Irrigation in India

Irrigation farming is very important for crop cultivation in regions of seasonal or low rainfall. Western U.P., Punjab, Haryana, parts of Binar, Orissa, A.P., Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and other regions thrive off of irrigation and generally practice multiple or double cropping. With irrigation, a large variety of crops can be produced such as rice, sugarcane, wheat, and tobacco.

Shifting Cultivation

Shifting cultivation is a type of subsistence farming where a plot of land is cultivated for a few years until the crop yield declines due to soil exhaustion and the effects of pests and weeds. Once crop yield has stagnated, the plot of land is deserted and the ground is cleared by slash and burn methods, allowing the land to replenish. This type of cultivation is predominant in the eastern and north-eastern regions on hill slopes and in forest areas such as Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Arunchal Predesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh. Crops such as rainfed rice, corn, buck wheat, small millets, root crops, and vegetables are grown in this system. Eighty-five percent of the total cultivation in northeast India is by shifting cultivation. Due to increasing requirement for cultivation of land, the cycle of cultivation followed by leaving land fallow has reduced from 25–30 years to 2–3 years. This significant drop in uncultivated land does not give the land enough time to return to its natural condition. Because of this, the resilience of the ecosystem has broken down and the land is increasingly deteriorating.

Shifting Cultivation in Orissa

Orissa accounts for the largest area under shifting cultivation in India. Shifting cultivation is locally known as the podu cultivation. More than 30,000 sq km of land (about 1/5 land surface of Orissa) is under such cultivation. Shifting cultivation is prevalent in Kalahandi, Koraput, Phulbani and other southern and western districts. Tribal communities such as Kondha, Kutia Kondha, Dongaria Kondha, Lanjia Sauras, and Paraja are all involved in this practice. Many festivals and other such rituals revolve around the podu fields, because the tribals view podu cultivation as more than just a means of their livelihood, they view it as a way of life In the first year of podu cultivation, tribals sow kandlan (variety of arhar dal). Sowing means spraying the seeds and is used at pre-monsoon time and the area is adequately protected. Yield differs from area to area depending on local climatic factors. After harvest, the land is left fallow. During the pre-monsoon, varieties of rice, corn and ginger are also sown. Generally, after the third year, the tribals abandon this land and shift to new land. On the abandoned land, natural regeneration starts from the available root stocks and seed bank. Bamboo comes up naturally; along with many other climbers that regenerate. Generally, this land is not cultivated for the next 10 years.

Impacts of Shifting Cultivation

Frequent shifting from one land to the other has affected the ecology of these regions. The area under natural forest has declined; the fragmentation of habitat, local disappearance of native species and invasion by exotic weeds and other plants are some of the other ecological consequences of shifting agriculture. Areas that have a fallow cycle of 5 to 10 years are more vulnerable to weed invasion compared to 15 year cycles, which have more soil nutrients, larger variety of species, and higher agronomic yield.

Commercial Agriculture

In a commercial based agriculture, crops are raised in large scale plantations or estates and shipped off to other countries for money. These systems are common in sparcely populated areas such as Gujarat, Punjab. Haryana, and Maharashtra. Wheat, cotton, sugarcane, and corn are all examples of crops grown commercially.

Types of Commercial Agriculture

Intensive Commercial Farming: This is a system of agriculture in which relatively large amounts of capital or labor are applied to relatively smaller areas of land. It is usually practiced where the population pressure is reducing the size of landholdings. West Bengal practices intensive commercial farming. Extensive Commercial Farming: This is a system of agriculture in which relatively small amounts of capital or labor investment are applied to relatively large areas of land. At times, the land is left fallow to regain its fertility. It is mostly mechanized because of the cost and availability of labor. It usually occurs at the margin of the agricultural system, at a great distance from market or on poor land of limited potential and is usually practiced in the tarai regions of southern Nepal. Crops grown are sugarcane, rice and wheat. Plantation Agriculture: Plantation is a large farm or estate usually in a tropical or sub-tropical country where crops are grown for sale in distant markets rather than local consumption.

Ley Farming

With increases in both human and animal populations in the Indian arid zone, the demand for grain, fodder, and fuel wood is increasing. Agricultural production in this region is low owing to the low and uneven distribution of rainfall (100-400 mm yr"1) and the low availability of essential mineral nutrients. These demands can be met only by increasing production levels of these Aridisols through adoption of farming technologies that improve physical properties as well as biological processes of these soils. Alternate farming systems are being sought for higher sustainable crop production at low input levels and to protect the soils from further degradation. In India's drylands, ley farming is used as a way to restore soil fertility. It involves rotations of grasses and food grains in a specific area. It is now being promoted even more to encourage organic farming, especially in the drylands . Ley farming acts as insurance against crop failures by frequent droughts. Structurally related physical properties and biological processes of soil often change when different cropping systems, tillage, or management practices are used. Soil fertility can be increased and maintained by enhancing the natural soil biological processes. Farming provides balanced nutrition for sustainable production through continuous turnover of organic matter in the soil.

Plantation Farming

This extensive commercial system is characterized by cultivation of a single cash crop in plantations of estates on a large scale. Because it is a capital centered system, it is important to be technically advanced and have efficient methods of cultivation and tools including fertilizers and irrigation and transport facilities. Examples of this type of farming are the tea plantations in Assam and West Bengal, the coffee plantations in Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, and the rubber plantations in Kerala and Maharashtra.

Forestry

In contrast to a naturally regenerated forest, tree plantations are typically grown as even-aged monocultures, primarily for timber production.These plantations are also likely to contain tree species that would not naturally grow in the area. They may include unconventional types of trees such as hybrids, and genetically modified trees are likely to be used in the future. Plantation owners will grow trees that are best suited to industrial applications such as pine, spruce, and eucalyptus due to their fast growth rate, tolerance of rich or degraded agricultural land, and potential to produce large quantities of raw material for industrial use. Plantations are always young forests in ecological terms; this means that these forests don't contain the type of growth, soil or wildlife that is typical of old-growth natural ecosystems in a forest. The replacement of natural forest with tree plantations has also caused social problems. In some countries, there is little concern or regard for the rights of the local people when replacing natural forests with plantations. Because these plantations are made solely for the production of one material, there is a much smaller range of services for the local people. India has taken measures to avoid this by limiting the amount of land that can be owned by someone. As a result, smaller plantations are owned by local farmers who then sell the wood to larger companies.

Teak and Bamboo

Teak and bamboo plantations in India are a good alternative crop solution to farmers of central India, where conventional farming was popular. Due to rising input costs of farming many farmers have grown teak and bamboo plantations because they only require water during the first two years. Bamboo, once planted, provides the farmer with output for 50 years until it flowers. Production of these two trees positively impacts and contributes to the climate change problem in India.

Crop Rotation

Crop rotation can be classified as a type of subsistence farming if there is an individual or communal farmer doing the labor and if the yield is solely for their own consumption. It is characterized by different crops being alternately grown on the same land in a specific order to have more effective control of weeds, pests, diseases, and more economical utilization of soil fertility. In India, leguminous crops are grown alternately with wheat, barley, and mustard. An ideal cropping system should use natural resources efficiently, provide stable and high returns, and avoid environmental damage.

Reasons for Crop Rotation

Many farmers in India utilize the crop rotation system to improve or maintain soil fertility, check erosion, reduce the build- up of pests, spread the workload on family labor, mitigate the risk of weather changes, become less reliant on agricultural chemicals, and increase the net profit.

Different Sequences of Crop Rotation

Two crops in two different seasons within a year ie: Year 1: Wheat Year 2: Barley Year 3: Wheat again

Three Crop Rotation ie: Year 1: Wheat Year 2: Barley Year 3: Mustard Year 4: Wheat again

Pearl Millet

Pearl millet crop is mostly grown as a rainfed monsoon crop during kharif (June-July to September-November) and also as an irrigated hot weather (February-June) crop in central and south India. Pearl millet is often grown in rotation with sorghum, groundnut, cotton, foxtail millet, finger millet (ragi), castor, and sometimes, in the south India, with rice.

On the red and iron rich soils of Karnataka, pearl millet and ragi rotation is practiced although pearl millet isn't always grown annually. Cluster bean - Pearl millet crop sequence with crop residue incorporation has significantly increased the productivity in the arid zone of Western Rajasthan where Fallow - Pearl millet/Pearl millet after Pearl millet crop sequence is practiced. In Punjab, the dryland rotation may be small grain-millet-fallow. In irrigated lands, pearl millet is rotated with chickpea, fodder sorghum, and wheat. In the dry and light soils of Rajasthan, southern Punjab and Haryana, and northern Gujarat, pearl millet is most often rotated with a pulse-like moth or mungbean, or is followed by fallow, sesame, potato, mustard, moth bean, and guar. Sesame crop may be low-yielding and may be replaced by castor or groundnut.

Dryland Farming

In dry farming, farmers grow crops that are drought resistant such as oil seeds, pulses and coarse grains like jowar, bajra and millets. Dry farming is very risky in arid and semi arid climates and in a highly populated country with limited land for agriculture like India, one out of two options are available as an alternative farming system; arable farming or crop production. http://www.world-agriculture.com/dry-land-farming/work-on-dry-farming-in-india.php

Dairy Farming

In 2001 India became the world leader in milk production with a production volume of 84 million tons. India has about three times as many dairy animals as the USA, which produces around 75 million tons.Dairy Farming is generally a type of subsistence farming system in India, especially in Haryana, the major producer of milk in the country. More than 40% of Indian farming households are engaged in milk production because it is a livestock enterprise in whcih they can engage with relative ease to improve their livelihoods.Regular milk sales allow them to move from subsistence to earning a market-based income. The structure of the livestock industry is globally changing and putting poorer livestock producers in danger because they will be crowded out and left behind. More than 40 million households in India are at least partially dependent on milk production and developments in the dairy sector will have important repercussions on their livelihoods and on rural poverty levels. Haryana was chosen to assess possible developments in the Indian dairy sector and to broadly identify areas of interventions that favor small-scale dairy producers. A methodology developed by the International Farm Comparison Network (IFCN) examined impacts of change on milk prices, farm management and other market factors that affect the small-scale milk production systems, the whole farm and related household income.

Co-operative Farming

Co-operative farming is a relatively new system in India. Its goal is to bring together all of the land resources of farmers in such an organized and united way so that they will be collectively in a position to grow crops on every bit of land to the best of the fertility of the land. This system has become an essential feature of India’s Five Year Plans. There is an immense scope for co-operative farming in India although the movement is as yet in it infancy. The progress of co-operative financing in India has been very slow. The reasons are fear of unemployment, attachment to land, lack of proper propa¬ganda renunciation of membership by farmers and existence of take societies.

References

Aggarwal, P. K. "Global Climate Change and Indian Agriculture: Impacts, Adaptation, and Migitation." Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 10 (2008): 911-19. Nov. 2008. Web. 31 Oct. 2011.

- Bhaduri, Anik, Upali Amarasinghe, and Tushaar Shah. "Future of Irrigation in India." Web. 14 Oct. 2011.

- "Dryland Farming - Work on Dryland Farming in India." Agriculture, Environmental Articles for Education at World Agriculture. Articles for Education. Web. 07 Nov. 2011.

- Guiteras, Raymond. "The Impact of Climate Change on Indian Agriculture." (2007). Dec. 2007. Web. 5 Nov. 2011.

- Gulati, Ashok, P. K. Joshi, and Maurice Landes. "Contract Farming in India: An Introduction." (2003). Web. 5 Nov. 2011.

- "History of Organic Farming." WWOOF India. WWOOF India Organics, 2007. Web. 07 Nov. 2011.

- "India’s Role in World Agriculture." Monitoring Agri-trade Policy. European Commision, Dec. 2007. Web. 26 Oct. 2011.

- Krishna, K. L., and Uma Kapila, eds. Readings in Indian Agriculture and Industry. Darya Ganj, New Delhi: Academic Foundation, 2009. Books.Google.com. Web. 20 Oct. 2011.

- Ramesh, P., N. R. Panwar, A. B. Sing, S. Ramana, Sushil Kumar Yadav, Rahul Shrivastava, and A. Subba Rao. "Status of Organic Farming in India." Web. 2 Nov. 2011.

- Ranjan, Rajiv, and V. P. Upadhyay. "Ecological Problems Due to Shifting Cultivation." 23 Mar. 1999. Web. 15 Oct. 2011.

- Sharma, Arun K. "The Potential for Organic Farming in the Drylands of India." Arid Lands Newsletters. 2005. Web. 20 Oct. 2011.

- Thakkar, Himanshu. "Assessment of Irrigation in India." 11 Aug. 1999. Web. 30 Oct. 2011.

- Van, Veenhuizen René. Cities Farming for the Future Urban Agriculture for Green and Productive Cities. Silang, Cavite, Philippines: International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, 2006. Print.