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User:MelCarruthers/Environmental impact of iron ore mining

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Lead

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Excavating Külszini lignitbány Visontán
Hematite-rich iron ore

The environmental impact of Iron ore mining in all its phases from excavation to beneficiation to transportation can have detrimental effects on air quality, water quality, and biological species.[1][2][3] This is predominantly a result of large-scale iron ore tailings (solid wastes produced during the beneficiation process of iron ore concentrate) that are released into the environment which are harmful to both animals and humans.[4]

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Introduction

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Iron ore

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Iron ore is a mixture of rocks and minerals containing enough iron content and sufficient volume and accessibility for mining and transportation to be economically mined.[5] Around five percent of the Earth's crust is composed of iron making it the fourth most abundant element.[6] Globally, iron ore is most commonly found in banded iron formations (BIFs) in the form of magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), goethite (FeO(OH)), limonite (FeO(OH)·n(H2O)) or siderite (FeCO3).[7] Hematite and magnetite are the most common types of Iron ore. Roughly 98% of iron ore on the global market is used in iron and steel production.[8] The other 2% of iron ore is used to make powdered iron for certain types of steel, auto parts, and catalysts; radioactive iron for medicine; and iron blue in paints, inks, cosmetics, and plastics.[5] Countries rich in iron ore deposits include Australia, Brazil, Canada, India, China, Europe, and South Africa.[6]

Mining and processing

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Once a fertile site is located, iron ore is typically extracted through open-pit mining. Common extraction methods for iron ore are drilling and blasting. The ore is then transported for processing where it undergoes crushing before being put in a blast furnace where coke smelting converts the iron ore to metallic iron.[9] This is a part of the beneficiation process where the ore is becoming ore concentrate. The gangue minerals become tailings are are transferred to a storage facility.

In most cases, ores are mined and then subjected to various mechanical and chemical metallurgical processes in order to extract the metals and convert them to metallic (chemically uncombined) form. Metal recovery from ore entails three types of operations: metal separation (ore dressing), initial chemical treatment, and metal reduction which is usually followed by refining treatment.

The extraction of iron from its ore involves different stages in which the valuable minerals are first reduced from the gangue (wasteful materials), then the iron ore is calcined to a valuable metal. Most of the processing is done in a blast furnace, in which the blast furnace first reduces the iron ore to pig iron before subsequent reduction to steel, cast iron, and wrought iron, depending on the type of furnace it is heated - cupola furnace, puddling furnace, OH furnace.

Hull-Rust-Mahoning Open Pit Iron Mine in Hibbing, Minnesota, United States.

Common methods of extracting iron ore consist of blasting, drilling, or general excavating,[1][2][3] Most iron ore is produced from open-pit mines.

Blasting in iron ore is done by putting explosives materials which are drilled into holes and fired to break and loosen intact rock so that ore and other material can be excavated and delivered to the processing plant, a stockpile, or a waste dump.

After the iron ore is out of the ground, it may be shipped to the iron and steel manufacturing plant. If the ore contains less than 60 percent iron, it is usually beneficiated to an iron-ore concentrate typically containing greater than 60 percent iron. This is done by separating the iron minerals from the valueless minerals, usually by magnetic, gravity, or froth floatation.

*This was all removed from the original article from another editor. The reason was that it is irrelevant.

Issues

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Iron mine tailings

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The high demand for iron necessitates continuous mining and processing, which generates a large amount of solid and liquid waste. Iron ore tailings are leftover materials that are released once mineral processing is complete.[10] This waste includes large amounts of iron and manganese oxides in addition to high pH values.[11] As a result, potentially toxic elements found in iron ore tailings include Ba, Cr, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, Ni, and Zn.[11] It is estimated that nearly 32% of iron ore extracted ends up as tailings.[12] Every year, approximately 1.4 billion tons of iron ore tailings are produced[6] Iron ore mining sites, as well as the wastewater tailings produced by them, contain high levels of dissolved iron and particulate suspended matter, which alter the water chemistry and metal bioavailability.

After leaving the mine, tailings need to be stored and managed in order to avoid environmental hazards and safety risks. In Brazil, approximately 95% of mining tailings end up in containment dams.[6] Many countries have experienced dam breaks. In 2015, the city of Mariana in Brazil experienced the failure of the Fundão Dam. More than 30 million cubic meters of water and tailings from iron ore mining were released into the environment.[6] Iron ore tailings dam breaks cause serious environmental damage and fatality in humans. Tailings impoundments also have the potential to seep. Seepage can be prevented or at least minimized by creating an impermeable layer.[13] Otherwise, acidic and metal-bearing waters from tailings can affect aquatic habitats and nearby groundwater.[13]

Air quality

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The main sources of emissions during both the construction and operation phases include the products of combustion such as nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide and fugitive dust from the operation of equipment.[14] The main sources of combustion-related emissions during both the construction and operation phases are related to diesel generators, fuel-oil boilers, and on-site road traffic. Fugitive dust emissions can occur during land clearing, ground excavation, and equipment traffic on site.[9] Potential sources of fugitive dust during operation include ore loading and unloading, ore crushing, stockpile erosion, and dust from conveyor systems around the site.[1][2][3] Fugitive dust emissions are proportional to the disturbed land area and the level of activity and vary substantially from day to day with varying meteorological conditions.[3] The major effects of industrial air pollution on wildlife include direct mortality, weakening industrial-related injury and disease, and physiological and psychological stress[15]

Gas and particulate emissions from historical smelting operations have been a source of concern for human health and environmental impacts at some sites. Modern smelters use processes that drastically reduce particulate and sulfur dioxide emissions, recognizing the importance of minimizing and mitigating this impact. Historically, sulfur dioxide was the most common source of concern because it reacts with atmospheric water vapor to form sulfuric acid, also known as "acid rain." The acidic conditions that develop in the soils where these emissions precipitate can harm existing vegetation and inhibit the growth of new vegetation. The environmental impact of historical smelting has left barren areas near smelting operations. Some areas that have been impacted for decades are now beginning to recover. Emissions from older metal smelters may have harmed human health in some cases. During the operation of lead-zinc smelters, for example, elevated levels of lead in blood have been measured in residents of some communities located near the smelters. Smelting operations are now combined with environmental controls to prevent potential environmental and health issues related to emissions.[16]

Acid rock drainage

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Acid rock drainage is created when water and oxygen interact with sulphur-bearing minerals and chemicals in rocks.[17] Sulphuric acid is the most common chemical reaction that results from mining activities as the beneficiation process requires dissolving the minerals surrounding the ore, which releases metals and chemicals previously bound up in the rock into nearby streams, freshwater bodies, and the atmosphere.[14][1][2][3] Acid may be generated under natural conditions prior to any disturbance, but mining activities typically magnify the amount of acid produced, thereby causing an inequality in the surrounding environment.[14] This process is referred to as Acid Mine Drainage (AMD). Acid produced from AMD causes health hazards to many fish and aquatic organisms as well as land animals who drink from contaminated water sources.[14] Many metals become mobile as water becomes more acidic and at high concentrations these metals become toxic to most life forms. [14]

*Large portion of this section removed from the original article by another editor.

Marshy (7041418469)

Wetlands and flora

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Some mines require the draining of nearby wetlands for the beneficiation process and the cooling of project machinery, which affects downstream water quality and water quantity, and flora and fauna.[2] Wetlands include bogs, fens, marsh, swamps, and shallow water.[18] Wetlands serve a number of functional purposes in the biosphere such as collecting and storing surface runoff, moderating stream flows, reducing natural flooding and erosion, cleaning and purifying water, recharging groundwater zones, and providing habitats for plants and animals,.[18][19]

Canis lupus in Quebec

Megafauna

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Some animals are more susceptible to change and degradation than others. Iron ore mines are projects with activities branching off into most aspects of ecology. Megafauna includes large mammals such as black bears, caribou, and wolves. This type of wildlife shows notable behavioural changes and are sensitive to[20] noise levels caused by iron ore mining and infrastructure projects shortly before and immediately after young are born and during the rutting season.[21][15] These disturbance types increase the distances moved by the animals and may effectively decrease reproductive success and cause starvation.[21]

In addition, mining development means new roads and trails are needed for access which greatly impacts wildlife. Animals lose their habitats and are made susceptible to over harvest, interrupted migration patterns, and lower population sizes.[14]

Water quality

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Water is one of the major natural resources that is being polluted by iron ore mining operations. Pollution is reduced with increasing distance away from the iron ore mining sites.[22]

The extraction of iron ore can cause surface runoff and leachate leading to the pollution of nearby water bodies.[23] Iron ore mining pollutes water through metal contamination and heightened sediment levels in streams.[24] The risk of contamination increases when iron ore mining exposes metal-bearing ores rather than exposing ore bodies naturally through erosion, and when mined ores are placed on earth surfaces in mineral dressing processes.[25] In the case of Iron Mountain, remediation activities took place in 1990 and water samples taken from seeps came back with negative pH values and was considered the most acidic water ever sampled.[26] Mining can also have an effect on water before the extraction process. During exploration, roads may be poorly built resulting in sedimentation which disrupts water quality.[27]

Indigenous Communities

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The above environmental issues of iron ore mining have disproportionate impacts on Indigenous communities and remain vulnerable to mining's impacts as a result of their close relationship to the land, water, and other natural resources.[28]

Environmental assessment

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Infrastructure projects must be filed for submission, revision, and assessment under federal or regional legislation to ensure projects are carried out in a sustainable manner, especially if it is thought to have a significant impact on the natural, social, or economic environment.[18] Depending on the size, scope, and scale of particular projects, environmental impact assessments can be assessed on a national or regional level. In most countries, larger plans are assessed under federal legislation such as CEAA 2012 and smaller projects are reviewed more locally, such as the NL Environmental Protection Act 2010. The purpose of an environmental assessment is to protect the environment and quality of life of the people of the province by facilitating the wise management of the natural resources of the province.[18] The environmental assessment process ensures that projects proceed in an environmentally acceptable manner.[18] The size and scope of iron ore projects make them subject to environmental assessment at all levels of administrative legislation.

Public Safety

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People are naturally drawn to old mining sites, but they can also be dangerous. They may have exposed or hidden entrances to underground workings, as well as old buildings.[13] Ground sinking, also known as "subsidence," is another safety concern at some mine sites. Where underground workings have come close to the surface, the ground may gradually sink. Because an unexpected collapse can happen at any time, such areas are usually identified and should be avoided. When modern mines close, mine owners mitigate such hazards by sealing off mine workings, regrading and lowering the steep slopes of surface excavations, and salvaging or demolishing buildings and facilities.[13]

In some states, such as Colorado and Nevada, where old mining areas are common, current mine owners, government agencies, or other interested parties may undertake reclamation and safety mitigation projects to address hazards at these sites. These programs, at a minimum, identify hazards, place warning and no-trespassing signs, and fence off dangerous areas. As part of these efforts, entrances to old underground workings may be closed. Some abandoned mine workings have become important bat habitats. Mine openings can be closed to allow bats continued access and protection.

This practice is particularly beneficial to endangered bat species. Because many old mine sites may be dangerous, the casual visitor is advised to exercise caution and avoid entering them.

Physical disturbances

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The actual mine workings, including open pits and waste rock disposal areas, cause significant physical disturbances at a mine site. Once a mine closes, mining facilities that occupy a small area of the disturbed land can either be salvaged or torn down.[13] The main visual and aesthetic impacts of mining are the open pits and waste rock disposal areas. Open-pit mining disturbs larger areas than underground mining making the visual and physical impacts much greater.[13] In addition, the amount of waste rock produced in open pit mines is typically two to three times the amount of ore produced meaning massive amounts of waste rock are removed from the pits and deposited in nearby areas.[13]

While tailings impoundments, leach piles, and slag piles do vary in size, they are generally quite large.[13] Some of the largest mill impoundments, such as those at open pit copper mines, can cover thousands of acres (tens of square kilometers) and be several hundred feet (about 100 meters) thick.[13] Heap leach piles can range in size from a few hundred feet (about 100 m) to hundreds of acres (0.1 to 1 km2).[13]

References

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d Alderon Iron Ore Corp (2011): http://www.ecc.gov.nl.ca/env_assessment/projects/Y2011/1611/index.html.
  2. ^ a b c d e Iron Ore Company of Canada (2013) Wabush 3 Open Pit Mine Project in Labrador West: http://www.ecc.gov.nl.ca/env_assessment/projects/Y2013/1711/index.html.
  3. ^ a b c d e Labrador Iron Mines Ltd. (2010) Schefferville Iron Ore Mine (James and Redmond Properties): http://www.ecc.gov.nl.ca/env_assessment/projects/Y2010/1379/index.html.
  4. ^ Adolphus, Gleekia (May 2016). "Impacts of Iron Ore Mining on Water Quality and the Environment in Liberia" – via ResearchGate.
  5. ^ a b Canada, Natural Resources (2018-01-23). "Iron ore facts". natural-resources.canada.ca. Retrieved 2024-02-18.
  6. ^ a b c d e Carmignano, Ottávio R.; Vieira, Sara S.; Teixeira, Ana Paula C.; Lameiras, Fernando S.; Brandão, Paulo Roberto G.; Lago, Rochel M. (2021-10-01). "Iron Ore Tailings: Characterization and Applications". Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society. 32: 1895–1911. doi:10.21577/0103-5053.20210100. ISSN 0103-5053.
  7. ^ Australia, Geoscience (2018-05-17). "Iron". Geoscience Australia. Retrieved 2024-02-18.
  8. ^ "Iron Fact Sheet". Australia Government. January 23, 2008. Archived from the original on 2017-02-18. Retrieved March 23, 2017.
  9. ^ a b weblinx (2021-10-05). "Iron Ore: From Mining to Processing to Dust Control". Benetech, Inc. Retrieved 2024-03-22.
  10. ^ Wang, Changlong; Jing, Jianlin; Qi, Yang; Zhou, Yongxiang; Zhang, Kaifan; Zheng, Yongchao; Zhai, Yuxin; Liu, Feng (2023). "Basic characteristics and environmental impact of iron ore tailings". Frontiers in Earth Science. 11. doi:10.3389/feart.2023.1181984/full. ISSN 2296-6463.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  11. ^ a b da Silva, Ana Paula Valadares; Silva, Aline Oliveira; Lima, Francielle Roberta Dias de; Benedet, Lucas; Franco, Aline de Jesus; Souza, Josimara Karina de; Ribeiro Júnior, Alexandre Carvalho; Batista, Éder Rodrigues; Inda, Alberto Vasconcellos; Curi, Nilton; Guilherme, Luiz Roberto Guimarães; Carneiro, Marco Aurélio Carbone (2022-12-01). "Potentially toxic elements in iron mine tailings: Effects of reducing soil pH on available concentrations of toxic elements". Environmental Research. 215: 114321. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2022.114321. ISSN 0013-9351.
  12. ^ Ghose, M.K.; Sen, P.K. (1999). "Impact on Surface Water Quality due to the Disposal of Tailings from Iron Ore Mines in India" (PDF). Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research. 58: 699–704.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "How can metal mining impact the environment?". American Geosciences Institute. 2014-11-13. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Sumi, L.; Thomsen S. (May 11, 2001). "Mining in Remote Areas: Issues and Impacts - A Community Primer" (PDF). Mining Watch Canada.
  15. ^ a b Newman JR (1979). "Effects of industrial air pollution on wildlife". Biological Conservation. 15 (3): 181–190. doi:10.1016/0006-3207(79)90039-9.
  16. ^ "How can metal mining impact the environment?". American Geosciences Institute. 2014-11-13. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
  17. ^ "Acid Rock Drainage | novascotia.ca". novascotia.ca. Retrieved 2024-02-18.
  18. ^ a b c d e Department of Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). Policy for Development in Wetlands | Water Resources Management. Retrieved March 2, 2017, from http://www.ecc.gov.nl.ca/waterres/regulations/policies/wetlands.html
  19. ^ Group, N. W. (n.d.). Retrieved March 2, 2017, from http://www.water.ncsu.edu/watershedss/info/wetlands/wetloss.html Archived 2017-04-26 at the Wayback Machine
  20. ^ Department of Environment and Climate Change. (n.d.). All Species. Retrieved March 2, 2017, from http://www.ecc.gov.nl.ca/wildlife/all_species/index.html
  21. ^ a b Webster, L. (1997, August). caribou Region Wildlife. Retrieved March 21, 2017, from http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/cariboo/env_stewardship/wildlife/caribou/mtncar/harass/impacts.pdf[permanent dead link]
  22. ^ Peplow, D. (1999). Environmental Impacts of Mining in Eastern Washington. Center for Water and Watershed Studies Fact Sheet, University of Washington, Seattle.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  23. ^ Gleekia, Adolphus; Sahu, Himanshu (February 2016). "Impacts of iron ore mining on water quality - A comparative study of India and Liberia". The Mining Geological and Metallurgical Institute of India: 371–380 – via ResearchGate.
  24. ^ Gajender, Chiluka; Jain, S.C. (June 2021). "Impact assessment of iron ore mining on water quality in and around mining area - Case study" (PDF). International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology. 08 (06): 60–71.
  25. ^ Garbarino JR, Hayes H, Roth D, Antweider R, Brinton TI, Taylor H (1995). Contaminants In The Mississippi River. Virginia, U.S.A.: U. S. Geological Survey. Circular 1133.
  26. ^ "Environmental Effects of Mining Iron Mountain | USGS California Water Science Center". ca.water.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
  27. ^ "Mining and Water Pollution". Safe Drinking Water Foundation. 2016-12-17. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
  28. ^ Horowitz, Leah; Keeling, Arn; Lévesque, Francis; Rodon, Thierry; Schott, Stephan; Thériault, Sophie (July 2018). "Indigenous people's relationships to large-sale mining in post/colonial contexts: Toward multidisciplinary comparative perspectives". The Extractive Industries and Society. 5 (3): 404–414 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
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