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The High Line, in New York City was an abandoned railway before being re-purposed and greened in 2006.

Urban greening has been defined as the practice of planning, managing, and creating green spaces in urban areas[1]. Urban greening has several beneficial effects on human health[2][3] and the environment[4], though it has also been criticized as a driver of gentrification[5], being expensive[6], and lacking in biodiversity[7]. Examples of urban greening policies include creating green roofs[8], planting trees in urban areas[9], redeveloping vacant lots[10], or creating parks and open spaces[11].

Benefits

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Multiple benefits have been found in urban areas which have implemented urban greening policies. The environmental benefits come from the reduction of air pollution and increased biodiversity[12][13]. Green roofs can be used to mitigate the urban heat island effect, which can be of particular value in warmer climates such as in Australia[8]. Planting vegetation in parking lots can reduce the heat island effect in that area by multiple degrees Celsius depending on the extent of the vegetation planted[9]. The heat island effect of urban areas can also be reduced by greening the facades of buildings[14]. Reductions in the heat island effect can also help improve the general health of the population by promoting more walking and reducing the incidence of heat stroke[15][16]. Green spaces can also promote social interaction between people, and provide people opportunities for recreation, though these benefits might not be equally shared across all demographic groups[10]. Another social benefit is that green urban areas are experienced as being more tranquil and in helping to relief stress[17].

An example of the economic benefits of urban greening is the savings on heating and cooling costs, and increases in property values[6][18]. Tree planting can also help in energy conservation, though their effectiveness varies widely depending on the amount and type of trees, the climate, and building types[4].

Criticisms and challenges

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Urban greening policies can lead to green gentrification, which is a form of economic displacement of the original inhabitants of an area by wealthier people following improvements made to the local environment or improvements of access to green spaces in that area. Depending on the location the urban greening policies are implemented, the benefits of it will not be shared equally among ethnic groups, with only one group benefiting from the improvements while other groups can face displacement due to rising property values [10]. Because of this, some residents may also oppose urban greening policies to prevent gentrification from taking place[19]. Other residents can oppose green policies due to a fear that such policies will negatively affect their employment opportunities, and the inconveniences caused by the spatial interventions needed for these policies[20]. Such policies can further be perceived as being an elitist and potentially even perpetuating racial segregation[21].

One of the criticisms of urban greening is that the vegetation selected for urban greening projects is often selected on the basis of aesthetic values and profitability, rather than the environmental values, leading to a homogenization of urban vegetation[7].

Urban greening projects can also be expensive, making them difficult to implement and possibly even preventing their implementation due to the high costs, in both the private and public sectors[6]. The land used for green space could also have been used for other potentially more economically profitable ends[22].

Other challenges can include the lack of an industry to provide for the vegetation types used for urban greening policies, hesitancy from investors and developers to support such projects with few demonstrations of success being locally available, plants commonly used in urban greening policies being unsuitable for a local climate, an inability to irrigate the green space, and a lack of industry standards, knowledge, and guidelines in how to implement such policies[8].

Examples

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Milan, Italy has also undertaken a large scale tree planting initiative, planning on planting up to 3 million trees by 2030, to improve the air quality, and as such the health of its residents, along with reducing carbon emissions, and alleviating the heat island effect. Abandoned land is planned to be used to turn into urban parks, where some of these new trees will be planted[23].

Riyadh, Saudi Arabia is undertaking a project to create the world's largest public park, the King Salman Park, the size of 13.4 square kilometers (5 square miles) with many different cultural attractions within the park. The King Salman Park is part of a larger project to create green spaces in Riyadh in an effort to combat climate change and create up to 70.000 new jobs, at the cost of $23 billion[24].

See also

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Further reading

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  1. The Principles of Green Urbanism: Transforming the City for Sustainability - by Steffen Lehmann, 2010
  2. Green Urbanism: Learning From European Cities - by Timothy Beatley, 1999
  3. Green Gentrification: Urban Sustainability and the Struggle for Environmental Justice - by Kenneth Alan Gould and Tammy L. Lewis, 2016
  4. Urban Green: Innovative Parks for Resurgent Cities - by Peter Harnik, 2010

References

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  1. ^ Randrup, Thomas B.; Konijnendijk, Cecil; Dobbertin, Michèle Kaennel; Prüller, Renate (2005), Konijnendijk, Cecil; Nilsson, Kjell; Randrup, Thomas; Schipperijn, Jasper (eds.), "The Concept of Urban Forestry in Europe", Urban Forests and Trees, Springer-Verlag, pp. 9–21, doi:10.1007/3-540-27684-x_2, ISBN 9783540251262, retrieved 2019-10-20
  2. ^ Sugiyama, T; Leslie, E; Giles-Corti, B; Owen, N (2008-05-01). "Associations of neighbourhood greenness with physical and mental health: do walking, social coherence and local social interaction explain the relationships?". Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health. 62 (5): e9–e9. doi:10.1136/jech.2007.064287. ISSN 0143-005X.
  3. ^ Astell-Burt, Thomas; Feng, Xiaoqi; Kolt, Gregory S (2014-3). "Green space is associated with walking and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in middle-to-older-aged adults: findings from 203 883 Australians in the 45 and Up Study". British Journal of Sports Medicine. 48 (5): 404–406. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2012-092006. ISSN 0306-3674. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ^ a b Ko, Yekang (2018-8). "Trees and vegetation for residential energy conservation: A critical review for evidence-based urban greening in North America". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 34: 318–335. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2018.07.021. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ Green Gentrification: Urban sustainability and the struggle for environmental justice. Routledge. 2016-07-14. doi:10.4324/9781315687322. ISBN 9781315687322.
  6. ^ a b c Perini, Katia; Rosasco, Paolo (2016-12). "Is greening the building envelope economically sustainable? An analysis to evaluate the advantages of economy of scope of vertical greening systems and green roofs". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 20: 328–337. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2016.08.002. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ a b Qian, Shenhua; Qi, Meng; Huang, Li; Zhao, Liang; Lin, Dunmei; Yang, Yongchuan (2016-8). "Biotic homogenization of China's urban greening: A meta-analysis on woody species". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 18: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2016.05.002. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ^ a b c Williams, Nicholas S.G.; Rayner, John P.; Raynor, Kirsten J. (2010-1). "Green roofs for a wide brown land: Opportunities and barriers for rooftop greening in Australia". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 9 (3): 245–251. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2010.01.005. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ^ a b Onishi, Akio; Cao, Xin; Ito, Takanori; Shi, Feng; Imura, Hidefumi (2010-1). "Evaluating the potential for urban heat-island mitigation by greening parking lots". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 9 (4): 323–332. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2010.06.002. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ a b c Danford, Rachel S.; Strohbach, Michael W.; Warren, Paige S.; Ryan, Robert L. (2018-1). "Active Greening or Rewilding the city: How does the intention behind small pockets of urban green affect use?". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 29: 377–383. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2017.11.014. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ Natural England and Landuse Consultants, 2009. Green Infrastructure Guidance. Natural England, NE176. Natural England, Peterborough.
  12. ^ Guo, Ying; Su, Jason G.; Dong, Ya; Wolch, Jennifer (2019-2). "Application of land use regression techniques for urban greening: An analysis of Tianjin, China". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 38: 11–21. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2018.10.013. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ^ Sikorski, Piotr; Wińska-Krysiak, Marzena; Chormański, Jarosław; Krauze, Kinga; Kubacka, Katarzyna; Sikorska, Daria (2018-10). "Low-maintenance green tram tracks as a socially acceptable solution to greening a city". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 35: 148–164. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2018.08.017. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ^ Morakinyo, Tobi Eniolu; Lai, Alan; Lau, Kevin Ka-Lun; Ng, Edward (2019-1). "Thermal benefits of vertical greening in a high-density city: Case study of Hong Kong". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 37: 42–55. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2017.11.010. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  15. ^ Lee, Hyunjung; Mayer, Helmut (2018-5). "Maximum extent of human heat stress reduction on building areas due to urban greening". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 32: 154–167. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2018.04.010. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ^ Coccolo, Silvia; Pearlmutter, David; Kaempf, Jerome; Scartezzini, Jean-Louis (2018-10). "Thermal Comfort Maps to estimate the impact of urban greening on the outdoor human comfort". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 35: 91–105. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2018.08.007. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ Watts, Greg (2017-8). "The effects of "greening" urban areas on the perceptions of tranquillity". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 26: 11–17. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2017.05.010. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  18. ^ Mell, Ian C.; Henneberry, John; Hehl-Lange, Sigrid; Keskin, Berna (2013-1). "Promoting urban greening: Valuing the development of green infrastructure investments in the urban core of Manchester, UK". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 12 (3): 296–306. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2013.04.006. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ^ Miller, Jessica Ty (2016-9). "Is urban greening for everyone? Social inclusion and exclusion along the Gowanus Canal". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 19: 285–294. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2016.03.004. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  20. ^ Nossiter, Adam (2019-10-05). "The Greening of Paris Makes Its Mayor More Than a Few Enemies". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2019-10-20.
  21. ^ Donaldson-Selby, Gavin; Hill, Trevor; Korrubel, Jan (2007-2). "Photorealistic visualisation of urban greening in a low-cost high-density housing settlement, Durban, South Africa". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 6 (1): 3–14. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2006.11.001. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ^ Mattila, Osmo; Häyrinen, Liina; Tervo, Mikko; Toppinen, Anne; Berghäll, Sami (2015). "Challenges of municipal greening and multifunctional forest management: The case of Finland". Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 14 (4): 982–990. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2015.09.007.
  23. ^ Girardi, Annalisa. "Milan: The Grey City Is Going Green". Forbes. Retrieved 2019-10-21.
  24. ^ "Saudi capital to get world's biggest park in $23bn project". Arab News. 2019-03-19. Retrieved 2019-11-03.

Category:Sustainable urban planning

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