User:ReimannRamon/sandbox
Safflower[edit]
In the introduction instead of Safflower, Carthamus tinctorius, is a highly branched, herbaceous, thistle-like annual plant. It is commercially cultivated for vegetable oil extracted from the seeds and was used by the early Spanish colonies along the Rio Grande as a substitute for saffron. Plants are 30 to 150 cm (12 to 59 in) tall with globular flower heads having yellow, orange, or red flowers. Each branch will usually have from one to five flower heads containing 15 to 20 seeds per head. Safflower is native to arid environments having seasonal rain. It grows a deep taproot which enables it to thrive in such environments.
our suggestion is:
Safflower (Carthamus Tinctorius) also known as American saffron or bastard saffron, is a plant species of the family of the Asteracea. It is native to parts of Asia and Africa, from central India through the Middle East to the upper reaches of the Nile river and into Ethiopia. It is mainly cultivated for vegetable oil extracted from the seeds and formerly has been used as a dye plant. Safflower has also been used as an adulterant of the condiment saffron[1].
Biology[edit]
Plant Morphology[edit]
Safflower is a fast growing, erect, winter/spring-growing annual herb, that resembles a thistle[2]. Originating from a leaf rosette emerges a branched central stem (also referred to as terminal stem), when day length and temperature increase. The main shoot reaches heights of 30 - 150 cm (12 - 59 in). The plant also develops a strong taproot, growing as deep as 2 m. First lateral branches develop, once the main stem is about 20 - 40 cm high. These lateral branches can then branch again to produce secondary and tertiary branches. The chosen variety as well as growing conditions influence the extent of branching.
The elongated and serrated leaves reach lengths of 10 - 15 cm and widths of 2.5 - 5 cm and run down the stem. The upper leaves that form the bracts are usually short, stiff and ovate, terminating in a spine[2]. Buds are borne on the ends of branches, and each composite flower head (capitulum) contains 20–180 individual florets. Depending on variety, crop management and growing conditions, each plant can develop 3 – 50 or more flower heads of 1.25 – 4 cm diameter. Flowering commences with terminal flower heads (central stem), followed sequentially by primary, secondary and sometimes tertiary branch flower heads. Individual florets usually flower for 3 – 4 days. Commercial varieties are largely self-pollinated. Flowers are commonly yellow, orange and red, but white and cream coloured forms exist too[2]. The dicarpelled, epigynous ovary forms the ovule. The safflower plant then produces achenes. Each flower head commonly contains 15 – 50 seeds; however, the number can exceed 100. The shell content of the seeds varies between 30-60%, the oil content of the seeds varies between 20-40 %[2] .
Plant Development[edit]
Safflower usually emerges 1-3 weeks after sowing and grows slower under low temperatures. Germination of safflower is epigeal. The first true leaves emerging form a rosette. This stage occurs in winter with short daylength and cold temperature, as the safflower can tolerate frosts up to -7C° during the rosette stage.
When temperature and daylength start to increase, the central stem begins to elongate and branch, growing more rapidly. Early sowing allows more time for developing a large rosette and more extensive branching, which results in a higher yield.
Flowering is mainly influenced by daylength. The period from the end of flowering to maturity is usually 4 weeks. The total period from sowing to harvest maturity varies with variety, location, sowing time and growing conditions; for June or July sowings, it may be about 26 - 31 weeks[2].
Both wild and cultivated forms have a diploid set of 2n = 24 chromosomes. Crossings with Carthamus palaestinus, Carthamus oxyacanthus and Carthamus persicus can produce fertile offspring.
Production[edit]
Here we would add a table
| Country | Total seed production (in tons) |
|---|---|
| Kazachstan | 214'149 |
| USA | 107'220 |
| Mexico | 58'675 |
| India | 55'000 |
| Turkey | 35'000 |
| Total global production | 627'653 |
Cultivation[edit]
Environmental conditions & requirements[edit]
Climate[edit]
Safflower prefers high temperatures and growth best at 28-35 ° C . It tolerates 40 ° C but there are also some varieties which grow under very low temperatures[4] . Safflower is cultivated in different seasons eg as a winter crop in south central India, as an early summer crop in California and as a mid-summer crop in the Northern Great Plains of the United States[5]. Minimum length of the growing season is 120 and 200 days for summer and winter cultivars respectively[6]. Plant performance is highly dependent on the different planting dates in terms of temperature and day length[5]. Winter hard varieties only form a rosette in late fall and elongates in spring[5]. In early stages safflower tolerates humidity but after bud stage the danger of a Botrytis blight infestation increases[5].
Safflower is drought tolerant[7]. The tap root makes moisture from deep soil layers available[5]. Additionally this tolerance can also be explained by the higher water use efficiency compared to other oil crops such as linseed and mustard[8]. Shortly before and during maximum flowering water requirements are the highest[5]. Beside drought tolerance, all parts of the plant are sensitive to moisture in terms of diseases[5]. In the case of excessive water supply it is susceptible to root rot[5]. Therefore, many varieties are not suitable in irrigated agriculture especially on soils with danger of waterlogging[6].
Safflower tolerates wind and hail better than cereals[9]. It stays erect and can retain the seeds in the head[5].
Soil[edit]
Safflower prefers well-drained, neutral, fertile and deep soils[5][4]. It can adapt well to soil pH (pH 5-8) and tolerates salinity[4]. Knowles[6] pointed out the various statements made in literature regarding the best suited soil texture for safflower, meaning safflower can be well grown on different soil types. Main driving factor for the suitability is the water supply depending on climate and/or irrigation and the resulting different water regimes of the different soil types[5]. Therefore cultivation on shallow soils[5] and especially on soils with danger of waterlogging is not suitable[6]. The deep rooting promotes water and air movement and improves the soil quality for subsequent crops in a rotation[9].
Nutrient requirements can be compared to wheat and barley, except nitrogen amendment should be increases by 20%[5]. Therefore soils with an adequate nitrogen supply are favorable[6].
Agricultural practice[edit]
Crop rotation & sowing [10][edit]
Safflower is frequently grown in crop rotation with small grains, fallow and annual legumes. Close rotation with crops susceptible to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum should be avoided (e.g. sunflower, canola, mustard plant and pea). A four-year rotation is recommended to reduce disease pressure.
Seeds should be sown in spring as early as 4.5°C soil temperature is exceeded to take advantage of the full growing season. If wireworms were a problem in the field in previous seasons, a respective seed treatment is recommended.
A planting depth between 2.5 and 3.5 cm is optimal. Shallow seeding promotes uniform emergence resulting in a better stand.
Seeding rate recommendations are around 17 and 33.5 kg/ha of live seed. Where lower seeding rates promote branching, a longer flowering period and later maturity and higher rates promote thicker stands with a higher disease incidence. Sufficient moisture is necessary for germination. Usually, row spacing between 15 and 25 cm are chosen using similar drill settings as recommended for barley.
Management [10][edit]
The total N recommendation is 90 kg/ha. This should include credits based on previous crops and soil available N. For the latter, deeper positioned nutrients need to be taken into account as safflower will root deeper than small grains and therefore access nutrients unavailable to them. Safflower growing in soils low in phosphorus need to be fertilized. Up to 39 kg/ha of phosphate can be drill-applied safely.
A weed control program is essential when growing safflower as it is a poor competitor with weeds during the rosette stage. Cultivation on fields with heavy infestation of perennial weeds is not recommended.
Harvest [10][edit]
Safflower is mature when most leaves have turned brown approximately 30 days after flowering. Seeds should fall from the head when rubbed. Rain and high humidity after maturity may cause the seeds to sprout on the head.
Harvesting is usually done using a small-grain combine harvester. Moisture in seeds should not exceed 8% to allow for a safe, long-term storage. Drying can be done similar to sunflower. Temperatures must not exceed 43°C to prevent damage to the seed and ensure quality.
Pests [11][edit]
- Gram pod borer/capsule borer: Helicoverpa armigera
- Safflower caterpillar: Perigaea capensis
- Safflower aphid: Uroleucon carthami
- Capsule fly/safflower bud fly: Acanthiophilus helianthi
Diseases[edit]
Alternia spp. is one of the most important diseases causing losses up to 50% in India[12]. In a field trial in Switzerland Botrytis cinerea turned out to be the most important disease[13].
| Disease | Cause | Symptoms | Control |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bacterial diseases | |||
| Bacterial blight | Pseudomonas syrinagae | Dark, water soaked lesions on stems, leaf petioles and leaves. Red-brown necrotic spots on leafs. Severely infected plants die. | No control reported. |
| Stem soft rot | Erwinia carotovora | Wilting. Stems have a soft internal rot. | No control reported. |
| Fungal diseases | |||
| Alternia leaf spot | Alternaria carthami | Seeds may rot or seedlings damp off. Brown spots on the cotyldedones. If stem is infected plant collapses. | Disease free seeds, fungicide treatment of seeds, resistant cultivar, hot water treatment of the seeds. |
| Botrytis head rot | Botrytis cinerea | Seed heads change color from a dark to light green followed by complete browning. Infected floral parts will be covered with a gray mold. | No control reported. |
| Cercospora leaf spot | Cercospora carthami | At any stage of growth. Commonly round spots on lower leaves. | No control necessary. |
| Colletrichum stem rot | Colletrichum orbiculare | Brown lesions, which can become necrotic occurring on the base of stems. Plant may die. | No control necessary. |
| Fusarium wilt | Fusarium oxysporum | Yellowing leaves at one side of the plant beginning on the lower leaves followed by wilting. Young plants may die. | Don’t plant seeds from affected plants, fungicide treatment of seeds, rotation, resistant cultivar |
| Phytophtora root rot | Phytophtora cryptogea, P. drechsleri, P. cactorum | At any stage of growth. Lower stems of seedlings collapse. On older plants leaves turn light green or yellow, then wild and die. | Resistant cultivar, provide good drainage, avoid ponding of water |
| Powdery mildew | Erysiphe cichoracearum | Gray powdery mass of conidia on leaf surfaces | No control reported. |
| Pythium root rot | Pythium spp. | Hypocotyl and first internode become water-soaked and soft with light brown discoloration. Later plant collapses | Fungicide treatment of seeds, avoid irrigation |
| Ramularia leaf spot | Ramularia carthani | Round and regular spots in both sides of leaves. Yield and seed quality is affected. | Rotation |
| Rhizocotina blight | Rhizocotina solani | Dark cortical lesions in the seedling stem. In advanced stages disease lesions extend up the stem. Root development is reduced | Resistant cultivar |
| Rust | Puccinia carthami | Can occur at seedling phase or at foliage phase. | Fungicide treatment of seeds, rotation, plow under residue, resistant cultivar |
| Sclerotinia stem rot | Sclerotinia sclerotiorum | Leaves turn yellow, wilt, turn brown and shrivel. White cottony growth on the stem. Can also affect heads. Plant may die. | Don’t plant safflower with other plants susceptible to S. sclerotiorum. |
| Verticillum wilt | Verticillum wilt | At any stage of growth. Leaves turn darker green than those of healthy plants. In older plants on lower leaves first. Unilateral leaf growth. Chlorotic areas on leaves. | Normally minor disease. Do not rotate with cotton, peanuts and other susceptible crops. |
| Mycoplasmal diseases | |||
| Safflower phyllody | Safflower phyllody mycoplasma | Abnormal axillary budding. | Keep safflower fields free of the weed Carthamus tenuis L. because the leafhopper (vector) breeds in this weed |
| Viral diseases | |||
| Chilli mosaic | Chilli mosaic virus CMV | Light and dark green patches are scattered over leaves | No control reported. |
| Cucumber mosaic | Light and dark green mosaic pattern primarily on upper leaves | No control reported. | |
| Severe mosaic | Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) | Stunted plants with reduced leaf and seed head size. Seed ovules rot. | No control reported. |
| Tobacco mosaic | Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) | Blotchy light and dark green mosaic patterns on leaves. | No control reported. |
Uses[edit]
Edible oils[edit]
Here we would add another graph with an overview of oil compounds
| Min | Max | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Saturated fatty acids | Myristic C14:0 | 0 | 0.5 |
| Palmitic C16:0 | 4 | 8.6 | |
| Stearic C18:0 | 1.7 | 2.6 | |
| Monounsaturated fatty acids | Oleic C18:1 | 8.1 | 18.4 |
| Eicosenoic C20:1 | 0 | 0.2 | |
| Polyunsaturated fatty acids | Linoleic C18:2 | 71.6 | 83.7 |
| Arachidonic C20:4 | 0 | 0.4 | |
| Linolenic C18:3 | 0 | 0.1 |
- ^ "Safflower | plant". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-11-06.
- ^ a b c d e Grain research & development corporation (2020-11-06). "Safflower plant growth and physiology" (PDF).
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ "World production of safflower seeds in 2018; World Regions/Crops/Production from pick lists". United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ a b c Nwokolo, E.; Smartt, J., eds. (1996). "Food and Feed from Legumes and Oilseeds". doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-0433-3.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Knowles, P. F. (2015), "Safflower", Hybridization of Crop Plants, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 535–548, doi:10.2135/1980.hybridizationofcrops.c38, ISBN 978-0-89118-566-6, retrieved 2020-11-08
- ^ a b c d e Knowles, P. F. (1955-07-01). "Safflower — production, processing and utilization". Economic Botany. 9 (3): 273–299. doi:10.1007/BF02859823. ISSN 1874-9364.
- ^ Hussain, M. Iftikhar; Lyra, Dionyssia-Angeliki; Farooq, Muhammad; Nikoloudakis, Nikolaos; Khalid, Nauman (2015-12-21). "Salt and drought stresses in safflower: a review". Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 36 (1): 4. doi:10.1007/s13593-015-0344-8. ISSN 1773-0155.
- ^ Kar, Gouranga; Kumar, Ashwani; Martha, M. (2007-01-10). "Water use efficiency and crop coefficients of dry season oilseed crops". Agricultural Water Management. 87 (1): 73–82. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2006.06.002. ISSN 0378-3774.
- ^ a b Corporation, Grains Research and Development. "Raising the Bar With Better Safflower Agronomy". Grains Research and Development Corporation. Retrieved 2020-11-08.
- ^ a b c "Safflower Production — Publications". www.ag.ndsu.edu. Retrieved 2020-11-06.
- ^ "vikaspedia Domains". vikaspedia.in. Retrieved 2020-11-06.
- ^ Gupta, S.K., ed. (2012). "Technological Innovations in Major World Oil Crops, Volume 1". doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0356-2.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ "Distelöl aus Schweizer Saflor?". Agrarforschung Schweiz (in German). 2005-04-01. Retrieved 2020-11-08.
- ^ Nyvall, Robert F. (1989). "Field Crop Diseases Handbook". doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-5221-2.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ "APPENDIX B. FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF DIETARY FATS AND OILS", The Fats of Life, Rutgers University Press, pp. 219–221, 2019-12-31, ISBN 978-0-8135-4919-4, retrieved 2020-11-06
- ^ Sabzalian, Mohammad R.; Saeidi, Ghodratollah; Mirlohi, Aghafakhr (2008-06-03). "Oil Content and Fatty Acid Composition in Seeds of Three Safflower Species". Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 85 (8): 717–721. doi:10.1007/s11746-008-1254-6. ISSN 0003-021X.
- ^ NY, Al Surmi; RAH, El Dengawi (2015). "Characteristics and Oxidative Stability of Some Safflower (Carthamus Tinctorius L.)". Journal of Nutrition & Food Sciences. s14. doi:10.4172/2155-9600.s14-001. ISSN 2155-9600.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Mailer, R., Potter, T., Redden, R., & Ayton, J. (2008). Quality evaluation of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) cultivars. In Paper presented at the 7th international safflower conference (Wagga Wagga, NSW)
- ^ Ben Moumen, Abdessamad; Mansouri, Farid; Richard, Gaetan; Abid, Malika; Fauconnier, Marie-Laure; Sindic, Marianne; El Amrani, Ahmed; Serghini Caid, Hana (2014-12-01). "Biochemical characterisation of the seed oils of four safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) varieties grown in north-eastern of Morocco". International Journal of Food Science & Technology. 50 (3): 804–810. doi:10.1111/ijfs.12714. ISSN 0950-5423.
- ^ Cosge, B., Gürbüz, B., & Kiralan, M. (2007). "Oil content and fatty acid composition of some safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) varieties sown in spring and winter". International Journal of Natural and Engineering. Sciences, 1(3): 11–15.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)