User:Teenuh1/Zoopharmacognosy

Article Draft

(All changes are made in bold, regular font size.)

Lead

Zoopharmacognosy is a behaviour in which animals *removed the word "apparently"* self-medicate by selecting and using plants, soils, insects, and psychoactive drugs to prevent or reduce the harmful effects of pathogens, toxins, and even other animals.

Article body

*Notes:

- A couple of sections seem a little...all over the place. I'm planning on editing it.

- To stay relevant with the topic of chemical ecology, I wanted to add an individual section about the common drugs or chemicals that're used by animals. I'm not sure if that section would fit in the structure of the article though, so I think I'm just going to add in specific animals (and the drugs & chemicals they use) to the section called "Methods of self-medication". I'll also focus on mainly refining the section for it to be more cohesive as well as including more specifics about the mechanisms for each case.

Section: Mechanisms

Revised: The antiparasitic effect of zoopharmacognosy could occur by at least two mechanisms, namely demonstrated through the modes of deglutition or ingestion. First, *took out the word "the"* ingested material may have pharmacological antiparasitic properties, such as *took out the word "that"* phytochemicals decreasing the ability of worms to attach to the mucosal lining of the intestines or chemotaxis attracting worms into the folds of leaves. Additionally, many plants *took out "during purported zoopharmacognosy"* have trichomes, often presented as hooked and spiky hairs, that can attach to parasites and dislodge them from the intestines. Another possible mode of action is that the ingested material may initiate a purging response of the gastrointestinal tract by rapidly inducing diarrhoea. This substantially decreases gut transit time, causing worm expulsion and interruption in the life cycle of parasites. This, or a similar mechanism, could explain undigested materials in the faeces of various animals, such as birds, carnivores, and primates.

The topical application of materials is often used by animals to treat wounds or repel insects. When plant leaves are chewed and then directly rubbed onto fur, compounds from said leaves are released for use. These compounds can often be analgesic or antiparasitic in nature. In regards to an insect repellant, the secondary metabolites traditionally used by plants to deter herbivores and insects from eating them can be used by animals as a protective measure. By interfering with neuroreceptors, these secondary metabolites can specifically act as olfactory cues for insects to avoid a certain source.

Section: Methods of self-medication

Revised: The three reported methods of self-medication are deglutition, ingestion, and topical application. When using one of these methods while appearing well, an animal may be using self-medication as a prophylactic measure. When it is unwell, the animal could be using self-medication as a curative measure.

Subsection: Deglutition

Revised: Some examples of zoopharmacognosy are demonstrated when animals, namely apes, swallow materials whole instead of chewing and ingesting them.

Chimpanzees

Wild chimpanzees sometimes seek *removed the word "whole"* leaves of the Aspilia plant. These contain thiarubrine-A, a chemical active against intestinal nematode parasites. Because this compound is quickly broken down by the stomach, chimpanzees will pick up the Aspilia leaves and, rather than chewing, roll them around in their mouths, sometimes for as long as 25 seconds. They then swallow the capsule-like leaves whole. Afterwards, the trichomes of the leaves can attach to any intestinal parasites, namely the nodular worm (Oesophagostomum stephanostomum) and tapeworm (Bertiella studeri), and allow the chimpanzee to physically expel the parasites. As many as 15 to 35 Aspilia leaves may be used in each bout of this behaviour, especially during the rainy season when there is an abundance of parasitic larvae that can cause an increased risk of infection. Moreover, chimpanzees are more likely to swallow leaves upon awakening or before their first meal to ensure effective timing of the leaves' properties.

*Move to this section: "Chimpanzees sometimes eat the leaves of the herbaceous Desmodium gangeticum. Undigested, non-chewed leaves were recovered in 4% of faecal samples of wild chimpanzees and clumps of sharp-edged grass leaves in 2%. The leaves have a rough surface or sharp-edges and the fact they were not chewed and excreted whole indicates they were not ingested for nutritional purposes. Furthermore, this leaf-swallowing was restricted to the rainy season when parasite re-infections are more common, and parasitic worms (Oesophagostomum stephanostomum) were found together with the leaves."

Bonobos sometimes swallow non-chewed stem-strips of Manniophyton fulvum *removed colons*. Despite the plant being abundantly available all year, M. fulvum is ingested only at specific times, in small amounts, and by a small proportion of bonobos in each group, demonstrating that it is indeed only utilized when the bonobos are unwell.

Monkeys

Tamarins were observed swallowing the large seeds of the fruit they regularly ingest. Although they are consumed along with the rest of the fruit, it must be noted that these seeds have no nutritional value for the monkeys. Since tamarins are routinely infected by trematodes, cestodes, nematodes, and acanthocephalans, there is speculation that the deliberate swallowing of these large seeds can help dislodge the parasites from the monkey's body.

Bears

Similar to the wild chimpanzees, Alaskan brown bears will swallow whole Carex leaves in the springtime to ensure the complete expulsion of parasites during their hibernation. Specifically, as tapeworms thrive off previously digested nutrients in the gut, the rough Carex leaves will lacerate their scolices, facilitating the defecation process. The proactive swallowing of these leaves will ensure low levels of active parasites within a hibernating bear.

Subsection: Ingestion

Mammals

Revised: Chimpanzees sometimes select bitter leaves for chewing. Parasite infection drops noticeably after chimpanzees chew leaves of pith (Vernonia amygdalina), which contain sesquiterpene lactones and steroid glucosides that are particularly effective against schistosoma, plasmodium and Leishmania. Specifically, these compounds can induce paralysis within the parasites and impair its ability to absorb nutrients, move, and reproduce. Chimpanzees don't consume bitter pith on a regular basis, but when they do *removed "eat it"*, it is often in small amounts by individuals that appear ill. Jane Goodall witnessed chimpanzees eating particular bushes, apparently to make themselves vomit.^{[citation needed]} *removed "There are reports that chimpanzees swallow whole leaves of particular rough-leaved plants such as Aneilema aequinoctiale; these remove parasitic worms from their intestines."*

*Can delete next paragraph because it's already mentioned in "deglutition" subsection.*

Subsection: Topical Application

Mammals

Callicebus oenanthes have been observed rubbing leaves of Piper aduncum on their furs and abdominal areas. Since these leaves contain insecticides like dillapiole and phenylpropanoids, it is speculated that this fur-rubbing is an indication of a preventative measure to ward off insects. Additionally, another species of titi monkeys, Plecturocebus cupreus, were seen rubbing their furs with the leaves of Psychotria, whose compounds have antiviral, antifungal, and analgesic properties.

Subsection: Social Zoopharmacognosy

When detecting endoparasitoid wasps, fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) lay their eggs in leaves with high ethanol content as a means of protection for their offspring. These wasps, especially those of the Leptopilina genus, will inject their eggs in approximately 80% of fruit fly larvae. As these wasp eggs develop, they will consume extensively through the larvae. To combat this, the fruit fly larvae will consume a large amount of ethanol from the food source to medicate themselves after wasp infection. Specifically, as the wasps are consuming more of the larvae, they will unknowingly consume more ethanol, which promptly leads to their deaths.