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===Facsimiles===
===Facsimiles===
At least two artists, including woodcutter Reuben Hedlock, created facsimiles of three vignettes which were part of the papyri, and were published along with the text of the papyri in [[Times and Seasons]] in 1842. Several Egyptologists and linguists disagree with Smith's explanations of the facsimiles.<ref>{{Harvnb|Baer|1968|pp=117-19}}. See also {{Harvnb|Ashment|1979|pp=33-48}} and {{Harvnb|Thompson|1995|pp=143-160}}</ref>
At least two artists, including woodcutter Reuben Hedlock, created facsimiles of three vignettes which were part of the original papyri. There is significant disagreement between and among LDS and non-LDS Egyptologists and linguists concerning the interpretation of the facsimiles. Current understanding of ancient Egyptian religious beliefs is still somewhat fragmentary and the graphical and textual expression of those beliefs was very symbolic. <ref>{{Harvnb|Baer|1968|pp=117-19}}. See also {{Harvnb|Ashment|1979|pp=33-48}} and {{Harvnb|Thompson|1995|pp=143-160}}</ref>


====Facsimile No. 1====
====Facsimile No. 1====
{{ImageStackRight|170|[[Image:Abraham Facsimile 1.png|thumb|right|175px|Facsimile No. 1 from the Book of Abraham]][[Image:Vignette1.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Extant papyri showing original vignette considered the source of Facsimile 1. Note the [[Lacuna (manuscripts)|lacuna]], or missing portions of the vignette.]]}}
{{ImageStackRight|170|[[Image:Abraham Facsimile 1.png|thumb|right|175px|Facsimile No. 1 from the Book of Abraham]][[Image:Vignette1.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Extant papyri showing original vignette considered the source of Facsimile 1. Note the [[Lacuna (manuscripts)|lacuna]], or missing portions of the vignette.]]}}
According to Smith’s explanation, this depicts the “idolatrous priest of Elkenah” attempting to sacrifice Abraham. He interpreted the four shapes underneath the altar as four idolatrous gods named; Elkenah, Libnah, Mahmackrah, and Korash.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://scriptures.lds.org/abr/fac_1| title = Facsimile No. 1| accessdate = 2006-08-07}}</ref>
According to Smith’s explanation, this depicts the “idolatrous priest of Elkenah” attempting to sacrifice Abraham. He interpreted the four shapes underneath the altar as four idolatrous gods named; Elkenah, Libnah, Mahmackrah, and Korash.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://scriptures.lds.org/abr/fac_1| title = Facsimile No. 1| accessdate = 2006-08-07}}</ref>
Modern egyptologists disagree with Smith's interpretation, noting that the four figures represent four [[canopic jars]] which held the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines of the deceased<ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1968|p=86}}</ref><ref>http://www.pantheon.org/articles/s/sons_of_horus.html</ref><ref>John Gee, "Notes on the Sons of Horus," FARMS paper GEE-91, Provo, Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1991</ref>. The jars bear the well-known images of the [[four sons of Horus]], the guardians of the organs, which are depicted (from left to right) as a human, a baboon, a jackal, and a falcon.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1968|p=86}}</ref><ref>http://www.pantheon.org/articles/s/sons_of_horus.html</ref> The names of the four sons of Horus are [[Imset]], [[Hapy]], [[Duamatef]] and [[Qebehsenuf]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1968|p=86}}</ref><ref>http://www.pantheon.org/articles/s/sons_of_horus.html</ref>
In Egyptian funerary texts these four figures typically depict [[canopic jars]] which held the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines of the deceased<ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1968|p=86}}</ref><ref>http://www.pantheon.org/articles/s/sons_of_horus.html</ref><ref>John Gee, "Notes on the Sons of Horus," FARMS paper GEE-91, Provo, Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1991</ref> representing the [[four sons of Horus]], Egyptian god of the sun and sky. They are depicted (from left to right) with the heads of a human, a baboon, a jackal, and a falcon.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1968|p=86}}</ref><ref>http://www.pantheon.org/articles/s/sons_of_horus.html</ref> Their Egyptian names were [[Imset]], [[Hapy]], [[Duamatef]] and [[Qebehsenuf]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Parker|1968|p=86}}</ref><ref>http://www.pantheon.org/articles/s/sons_of_horus.html</ref>

As of 1998, there were twenty-nine known examples of the Book of Breathings Made by Isis, of which the Joseph Smith papyri is an example. Of those twenty nine, eighteen have vignettes associated with them.<ref>Marc Coenen, An Introduction to the Document of Breathing Made by Isis, Reveu d'Egyptologie 49 (1998): 38 and n.14.</ref> A comparison of the Book of Abraham facsimiles with these other documents indicates that the Book of Abraham Fasimile No. 1 is unique in at least two ways;<ref>Marc Coenen, An Introduction to the Document of Breathing Made by Isis, Reveu d'Egyptologie 49 (1998): pp 40-41.</ref> It is the only version of a Book of Breathings Made by Isis with this particular image and the position of the legs of the reclining figure, with one raised, is also unique.<ref>Kerry Muhlestein, The Book of Abraham in Its Place,The FARMS Review 17/2 (2005)</ref>


====Facsimile No. 2====<!-- A link from the article [[Hypocephalus]] redirects here -->
====Facsimile No. 2====<!-- A link from the article [[Hypocephalus]] redirects here -->
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The figure represented by Facsimile 2 is called a [[hypocephalus]]. It was placed under the head or feet of the deceased to assist them in remembering what to say and do in relation to the 'gods' and trials they would face after death. These personalized instructions are often accompanied by a [[Book of the Dead]] or Book of Breathings and are a synopsis of information contained in them. <ref>Other hypocephali may be viewed at http://www.bowers.org/mummies/spells_image5.html and http://essenes.net/hypo.htm. The the image on the site varies from the Book of Abraham hypocephalus. (since the plate is referred to as the "second facsimile of Abraham," and claims it is contained in the Pearl of Great Price, it appears this plate and the translation are derived from the Joseph Smith papyri.)</ref>
The figure represented by Facsimile 2 is called a [[hypocephalus]]. It was placed under the head or feet of the deceased to assist them in remembering what to say and do in relation to the 'gods' and trials they would face after death. These personalized instructions are often accompanied by a [[Book of the Dead]] or Book of Breathings and are a synopsis of information contained in them. <ref>Other hypocephali may be viewed at http://www.bowers.org/mummies/spells_image5.html and http://essenes.net/hypo.htm. The the image on the site varies from the Book of Abraham hypocephalus. (since the plate is referred to as the "second facsimile of Abraham," and claims it is contained in the Pearl of Great Price, it appears this plate and the translation are derived from the Joseph Smith papyri.)</ref>


As with Facsimile No. 1, Smith's explanation differs from the standard interpretation. He stated that the central figure in this [[Hypocephalus]] represents "[[Kolob]], signifying the first creation, nearest to the celestial, or the residence of God."<ref>{{Harvnb|Rhodes|1992}}. Rhodes states that the word ''Kolob'' "most likely derives from the common Semitic root *QLB, which has the basic meaning of 'heart, center, middle.' The Arabic form of this word, qalb, forms part of the Arabic names of several of the brightest stars in the sky including Antares, Regulus, and Canopus."</ref> He gave astronomical explanations for some of the figures. For the others he stated that their interpretations “will be given in the own due time of the Lord”.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://scriptures.lds.org/abr/fac_2| title = Facsimile No. 2| accessdate = 2006-08-07}}</ref>
Joseph Smith stated that the central figure in this [[Hypocephalus]] represents "[[Kolob]], signifying the first creation, nearest to the celestial, or the residence of God." Michael Rhodes suggests that the word ''Kolob'' "most likely derives from the common Semitic root *QLB, which has the basic meaning of 'heart, center, middle.' The Arabic form of this word, qalb, forms part of the Arabic names of several of the brightest stars in the sky including Antares, Regulus, and Canopus."<ref>{{Harvnb|Rhodes|1992}}</ref> Smith also gave astronomical explanations for some of the figures. For the others he stated that their interpretations “will be given in the own due time of the Lord”.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://scriptures.lds.org/abr/fac_2| title = Facsimile No. 2| accessdate = 2006-08-07}}</ref>


====Facsimile No. 3====
====Facsimile No. 3====
Joseph Smith claimed that this image represented [[Abraham]] sitting on the [[Pharaoh (Book of Abraham)|Pharaoh]]'s throne teaching the principles of [[astronomy]] to the Egyptian court. Smith stated that the figure behind "Abraham in Egypt" is "King Pharaoh, whose name is given in the characters above his head." The figure before "Abraham" is "Prince of Pharaoh, King of Egypt". The dark character is "Olimlah, a slave belonging to the prince" and in between is "Shulem, one of the king’s principal waiters".<ref>{{cite web| url = http://scriptures.lds.org/abr/fac_3| title = Facsimile No. 3| accessdate = 2006-08-07}}</ref>
Joseph Smith stated that this image represented [[Abraham]] sitting on the [[Pharaoh (Book of Abraham)|Pharaoh]]'s throne teaching the principles of [[astronomy]] to the Egyptian court. Smith stated that the figure behind "Abraham in Egypt" is "King Pharaoh, whose name is given in the characters above his head." The figure before "Abraham" is "Prince of Pharaoh, King of Egypt". The dark character is "Olimlah, a slave belonging to the prince" and in between is "Shulem, one of the king’s principal waiters".<ref>{{cite web| url = http://scriptures.lds.org/abr/fac_3| title = Facsimile No. 3| accessdate = 2006-08-07}}</ref>

⚫
Egyptologists interpret this as a typical scene of [[The Book of the Dead]], albeit a later version, which accompanied the ''Book of Breathings'' of the owner of the scroll, in which the deceased person for whom the scroll was made is presented before the Egyptian god, [[Osiris]].<ref>See for example {{cite web| url = http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/funerary_practices/judgment.htm| title = The Judgment of the Dead| accessdate = 2006-08-07}}</ref> Heiroglyphics at the bottom of the scroll identify the the owner of the scroll, a priest named Hor. Osiris is seated on a throne, wearing the [[Atef]] crown and holding a sceptre and a flail. Behind him stands [[Isis]], wearing the Horned Sun Disk headdress. To the right are [[Ma'at]], with the feather headdress, Hor (deceased owner of the scroll) and [[Anubis]] the god of embalming.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.historylink101.net/egypt_1/gods_osiris.htm| title = Osiris| accessdate = 2006-08-07}}</ref>


⚫
Egyptologists interpret this as a scene from the [[The Book of the Dead]], albeit a later version, which accompanied the ''Book of Breathings'' of the owner of the scroll, in which the deceased person for whom the scroll was made is presented before the Egyptian god, [[Osiris]] for judgement.<ref>See for example {{cite web| url = http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/funerary_practices/judgment.htm| title = The Judgment of the Dead| accessdate = 2006-08-07}}</ref> Heiroglyphics at the bottom of the scroll identify the the owner of the scroll, a priest named Hor. Osiris is seated on a throne, wearing the [[Atef]] crown and holding a sceptre and a flail. Behind him stands [[Isis]], wearing the Horned Sun Disk headdress. To the right are [[Ma'at]], with the feather headdress, Hor (deceased owner of the scroll) and [[Anubis]] the god of embalming.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.historylink101.net/egypt_1/gods_osiris.htm| title = Osiris| accessdate = 2006-08-07}}</ref>
[[Image:Abraham Facsimile 3.png|thumb|right|300px|Facsimile No. 3 from the Book of Abraham.]]
[[Image:Abraham Facsimile 3.png|thumb|right|300px|Facsimile No. 3 from the Book of Abraham.]]


Revision as of 14:14, 22 April 2008

For other meanings of this name, see Book of Abraham (disambiguation).

The Book of Abraham is a scriptural text for some denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints describes it as "...a translation of ancient records written on papyrus that came into the possession of the Church in 1835."[1]

According to Joseph Smith, Jr., the movement's founder, it is "a translation of some ancient records....purporting to be the writings of Abraham, while he was in Egypt, called the Book of Abraham, written by his own hand, upon papyrus".[2]

The Book of Abraham was originally published in 1842 in the Times and Seasons[3] together with facsimiles of vignettes from the papyrus and Smith's explanations of them. In 1851, it was republished in England as part of the Pearl of Great Price, which has been included in the canon of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of LDS Church since 1880.[4]

For many years the original papyri were thought to have been lost. In 1966 eleven fragments were found in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and are now typically referred to as the Joseph Smith Papyri. Both Mormon and non-Mormon Egyptologists have examined the fragments and concluded that they are portions of Egyptian funerary texts, dating to about the first century BC. Current translations of the Egyptian text contain no reference to Abraham or the other elements of the story in the Joseph Smith translation. Their re-discovery amplified the long standing dispute concerning the authenticity of the Book of Abraham.

Origin

In July 1835, an Irishman named Michael Chandler brought a traveling exhibition of four Egyptian mummies and papyri to Kirtland, Ohio, then home of the Latter-Day Saints. The papyri contained Egyptian hieroglyphics.[5] The Rosetta Stone had been discovered in 1799 but the skills to read Egyptian wouldn't be well developed until the 1850s. [6] Chandler asked Joseph Smith to look at the scrolls and give some insight into what was written on them due to Smith's notoriety and claim to have translated the golden plates of the Book of Mormon.

After reviewing and giving Chandler a description of parts of the scrolls, Joseph Smith, Joseph Coe and Simeon Andrews purchased the four mummies and at least five papyrus documents for $2400[7] Smith declared that two of the scrolls contained the writings of Abraham and Joseph of Egypt:

... with W.W. Phelps and Oliver Cowdery as scribes, I commenced the translation of some of the characters or hieroglyphics, and much to our joy found that one of the rolls contained the writings of Abraham, another the writings of Joseph of Egypt, etc. — a more full account of which will appear in its place, as I proceed to examine or unfold them.[8]

Joseph Smith translated the majority of the Book of Abraham text in July and a few days in November of 1835 and did some minor revisions in March of 1842.[9] In addition, he began

"...translating an alphabet to the Book of Abraham, and arranging a grammar of the Egyptian language as practiced by the ancients."[10]

Content

Book of Abraham Text

The Book of Abraham tells a story of Abraham's life, travels to Canaan and Egypt and a vision concerning the universe and the creation of the world. [11] Chapters 1 and 2 describe Abraham’s early life and his fight against the idolatry of his family and society. It recounts how pagan priests tried to sacrifice Abraham and that an angel appeared and rescued him. Chapter 2 includes information about God’s covenant with Abraham and how it would be fulfilled. Chapters 3 through 5 contain the vision about astronomy, the creation of the world, and the creation of man.[12] The text is one source of some unique LDS doctrines such as the exaltation of humanity[13], the plurality of gods[14], significance of the priesthood[15], pre-mortal existence[16], and there are other inhabited worlds in the universe. [17]

Facsimiles

At least two artists, including woodcutter Reuben Hedlock, created facsimiles of three vignettes which were part of the original papyri. There is significant disagreement between and among LDS and non-LDS Egyptologists and linguists concerning the interpretation of the facsimiles. Current understanding of ancient Egyptian religious beliefs is still somewhat fragmentary and the graphical and textual expression of those beliefs was very symbolic. [18]

Facsimile No. 1

Template:ImageStackRight According to Smith’s explanation, this depicts the “idolatrous priest of Elkenah” attempting to sacrifice Abraham. He interpreted the four shapes underneath the altar as four idolatrous gods named; Elkenah, Libnah, Mahmackrah, and Korash.[19] In Egyptian funerary texts these four figures typically depict canopic jars which held the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines of the deceased[20][21][22] representing the four sons of Horus, Egyptian god of the sun and sky. They are depicted (from left to right) with the heads of a human, a baboon, a jackal, and a falcon.[23][24] Their Egyptian names were Imset, Hapy, Duamatef and Qebehsenuf.[25][26]

As of 1998, there were twenty-nine known examples of the Book of Breathings Made by Isis, of which the Joseph Smith papyri is an example. Of those twenty nine, eighteen have vignettes associated with them.[27] A comparison of the Book of Abraham facsimiles with these other documents indicates that the Book of Abraham Fasimile No. 1 is unique in at least two ways;[28] It is the only version of a Book of Breathings Made by Isis with this particular image and the position of the legs of the reclining figure, with one raised, is also unique.[29]

Facsimile No. 2

Facsimile No. 2 from the Book of Abraham
Facsimile 2 as found in the Kirtland Egyptian Papers. Note the lacuna, or missing portions in this original facsimile.

The figure represented by Facsimile 2 is called a hypocephalus. It was placed under the head or feet of the deceased to assist them in remembering what to say and do in relation to the 'gods' and trials they would face after death. These personalized instructions are often accompanied by a Book of the Dead or Book of Breathings and are a synopsis of information contained in them. [30]

Joseph Smith stated that the central figure in this Hypocephalus represents "Kolob, signifying the first creation, nearest to the celestial, or the residence of God." Michael Rhodes suggests that the word Kolob "most likely derives from the common Semitic root *QLB, which has the basic meaning of 'heart, center, middle.' The Arabic form of this word, qalb, forms part of the Arabic names of several of the brightest stars in the sky including Antares, Regulus, and Canopus."[31] Smith also gave astronomical explanations for some of the figures. For the others he stated that their interpretations “will be given in the own due time of the Lord”.[32]

Facsimile No. 3

Joseph Smith stated that this image represented Abraham sitting on the Pharaoh's throne teaching the principles of astronomy to the Egyptian court. Smith stated that the figure behind "Abraham in Egypt" is "King Pharaoh, whose name is given in the characters above his head." The figure before "Abraham" is "Prince of Pharaoh, King of Egypt". The dark character is "Olimlah, a slave belonging to the prince" and in between is "Shulem, one of the king’s principal waiters".[33]

Egyptologists interpret this as a scene from the The Book of the Dead, albeit a later version, which accompanied the Book of Breathings of the owner of the scroll, in which the deceased person for whom the scroll was made is presented before the Egyptian god, Osiris for judgement.[34] Heiroglyphics at the bottom of the scroll identify the the owner of the scroll, a priest named Hor. Osiris is seated on a throne, wearing the Atef crown and holding a sceptre and a flail. Behind him stands Isis, wearing the Horned Sun Disk headdress. To the right are Ma'at, with the feather headdress, Hor (deceased owner of the scroll) and Anubis the god of embalming.[35]

Facsimile No. 3 from the Book of Abraham.

Early Criticism of the Facsimiles

Sometime in 1856, Theodule Deveria, an Egyptologist at the Louvre, had the opportunity to examine the facsimiles published as part of the Book of Abraham.[36]. His interpretation, juxtaposed with Smith's interpretation was published in T.B.H. Stenhouse's Book The Rocky Mountain Saints: A Full and Complete History of the Mormons in 1873.[37] Additionally, later in 1912, Reverend Franklin S. Spalding sent copies of the three facsimiles to eight Egyptologists and Semetists soliciting their interpretation of the facsimiles, the results of which were published in Spalding's work Joseph Smith, Jr. As a Translator. Deveria, and each of the eight scholars immediately recognized the facsimiles as portions of ordinary funerary documents, and some harshly condemned Joseph Smith's interpretation, as shown below:

Egyptologist Dr. James H. Breasted, of the University of Chicago noted:

"… these three facsimiles of Egyptian documents in the ‘Pearl of Great Price’ depict the most common objects in the Mortuary religion of Egypt. Joseph Smith’s interpretations of them as part of a unique revelation through Abraham, therefore, very clearly demonstrates that he was totally unacquainted with the significance of these documents and absolutely ignorant of the simplest facts of Egyptian writing and civilization."[38]

Dr. W.M. Flinders Petrie of London University wrote:

"It may be safely said that there is not one single word that is true in these explanations"[39]

Dr. A.H. Sayce, Oxford professor of Egyptology,

“It is difficult to deal seriously with Joseph Smith’s impudent fraud.... Smith has turned the Goddess [in Facsimile No. 1] into a king and Osiris into Abraham.”[40]

Egyptologist Theodule Deveria also noted that portions of Facsimile 1 appeared to be incorrect, based on comparison with other similar Egyptian vignettes, and suspected that they had been reconstructed from lacunae in the original papyri.[41] The papyri containing Facsimile 1 is acknowledged by Egyptologists to be a version of The Book of Breathings[42][43].

In 1912, Dr. Albert Lythgoe, head of Egyptian Art at the New York Metropolitan Museum, stated that portions of facsmile 1 were incorrect, because "the god Anubus, bending over the mummy, was shown with a human and strangely un-Egyptian head, instead of a jackal's head usual to the scene."[44] Theodule Deveria, Klaus Baer, and Richard A. Parker also noted that Anubus should have been jackal headed.[45][46][47] Both Miller and Baer also noted the positions of the limbs of Osiris in the facsimile, stating that one limb should have been below the body, or grasping his phallus as part of the conception of Horus.[48][49] Upon discovery of the original papyri, critics quickly noted that the portions that Egyptologists had long criticized were missing, including the head of the standing figure, and suggested that Joseph Smith had filled in the missing portions in the published version of the facsimile.[citation needed]

Scholars and Egyptologists have also criticized Facsimile 2 for containing false reconstruction of lacunae, suggesting that Joseph Smith reconstructed portions of the vignette with characters from another papyrus.[50] Critics note that an incomplete version of facsimile 2 is found among the Kirtland Egyptian Papers, part of which are in the handwriting of Joseph Smith. Comparing the published version of Facsimile 2 with the version from the Kirtland Egyptian Papers and the newly rediscovered papyri, critics note that characters from the original papyri appear to have been used to fill in the missing portions of Facsimile 2, with some of the characters being upside down.[51]

Some Mormon apologists have proposed that the facsimiles were filled in to make the images more aesthetically pleasing, and have little to do with the actual interpretation of them[citation needed]. Others note that it is unclear if Joseph Smith himself filled in the facsimiles[citation needed], although he was the editor of Times and Seasons, the periodical in which the facsimiles first appeared, and as such would have approved any images that were included[citation needed].

Loss and rediscovery of the papyrus

After Joseph Smith's death, the Egyptian artifacts were held principally by his mother, Lucy Mack Smith, and after her death on May 14, 1856, by his widow, Emma Hale Smith. On May 25, 1856, Emma sold four Egyptian mummies with the records with them to Mr. Abel Combs.[52] Combs then sold two mummies with some papyri, which were sent to the St. Louis Museum. In 1863 they went to the Chicago Museum, where they were apparently burned in the Great Chicago Fire. The fate of Combs's two other mummies is unknown, but some papyri survived. In 1918, Mrs. Alice Heusser of Brooklyn, a daughter of Combs's housekeeper, approached the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art (MMA) with these remaining papyri. In 1947 the MMA acquired them from her widower. Aziz Suryal Atiya of the University of Utah found eleven fragments of the remaining papyri in May 1966[53], after he recognized the vignette which is canonized as Facsmile 1 in the Pearl of Great Price.

These rediscovered papyri were fragmentary and found to be of origin from the late Ptolemaic period. They were very familiar Egyptian texts comparable to many other papyri and as such were of little value to a museum. According to Henry G. Fischer, curator of the Egyptian Collection at the MMA, an anonymous donation to the MMA made it possible for the church to acquire the papyri.[54] These fragments, originally called the Sensen Papyrus, were designated Joseph Smith Papyrus I, X, and XI.[55] Other fragments, designated JSP II, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII, are thought by some to be the Book of Joseph that Smith referred to. Egyptologist John A. Wilson stated that the recovered fragments indicate the existence of at least six to eight separate documents.[56]

One scholar estimated that the fragments constitute roughly one-third of Joseph Smith's original collection of papyri.[57] Scholars agree that the recovered papyri are portions of the original. They draw this conclusion based on the fact that the fragments were pasted to paper which had "drawings of a temple and maps of the Kirtland, Ohio area" on the back of them. Additionally, an affidavit by Emma Smith accompanied the fragments, stating that they had been in the possession of Joseph Smith.[58]

Suppression and resurfacing of the Church Historian's Fragment

In addition to the fragments that were recovered at the museum, an additional fragment surfaced that had been in the possession of the LDS church. According to the Improvement Era, an official church publication, the church "admits that it had been been suppressing a fragment of the papyrus for 130 years.”[59] Additionally, Mormon scholar Jay M. Todd noted, "Outside of a few associates, Dr. Clark [of BYU] had kept the fragment a matter of confidence, under instructions from the Historian’s Office, for over 30 years."[60] This fragment was subsequently found to have been a part of the original papyri and appropriately was analyzed along with the other recovered fragments.

Analysis of the papyrus

In November 1967 the LDS church asked Hugh Nibley, a professor of ancient scripture at Brigham Young University (BYU) to study the fragments. Nibley was a linguist, but not an Egyptologist, and subsequently studied under John A. Wilson and Klaus Baer in an attempt to learn enough about the Egyptian characters to translate them himself.[61] The LDS church published sepia photographs of the papyri in its magazine "The Improvement Era" in February 1968, although a translation was not provided at the time.[62] The editors of an independent quarterly journal Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, arranged a translation of the papyri from the photographs by three American Egyptologists; John A. Wilson (University of Chicago, Oriental Institute), Klaus Baer (University of Chicago, Oriental Institute), and Richard A. Parker (Director of the Department of Egyptology, Brown University).[63] Their translations were published in Dialogue in the summer and autumn of 1968.

The Joseph Smith Papyrus fragment containing Facsimile No. 1 has three sections. Klaus Baer was the first person to publish a translation of the writing flanking the original of Facsimile No. 1. His translation is as follows:

... the prophet of Amonrasonter, prophet [?] of Min Bull-of-his-Mother, prophet [?] of Khons the Governor… Hor, justified, son of the holder of the same titles, master of secrets, and purifier of the gods Osorwer, justified [?]… Tikhebyt, justified. May your ba live among them, and may you be buried in the West…May you give him a good, splendid burial on the West of Thebes just like ...[64]

Hor is the name of the mummified deceased and Tikhebyt is the name of Hor’s mother. The ba is his spirit. Updated translations consistent with Klaus Baer have been provided by others including BYU Professor Michael D. Rhodes,[65] BYU Egyptologist, John Gee,[66] and another University of Chicago Egyptologist, Robert K. Ritner.[67]

The lower middle section of the Joseph Smith Papyrus fragment Facsimile No. 1 was initially translated by Richard Parker of Brown University. His translation is as follows:

this great pool of Khonsu [Osiris Hor, justified], born of Taykhebyt, a man likewise. After (his) two arms are [fast]ened to his breast, one wraps the Book of Breathings, which is with writing both inside and outside of it, with royal linen, it being placed (at) his left arm near his heart, this having been done at his wrapping and outside it. If this book be recited for him, then he will breathe like the soul[s of the gods] for ever and ever.[68]

Translations of this section have also been made by Baer,[69] Nibley,[70] and Ritner[71] and they are consistent with Parker's.

For the third section, Klaus Baer noted that Hor’s Book of Breathings would end with Facsimile No. 3, however the vignette is missing or lost in the original papyrus. Using Facsimile No. 3, the following translation was made by Robert K. Ritner.[72]

Label for Osiris (text to the right of figure 1 of facsimile 3):

Recitation by Osiris, Foremost of the Westerners, Lord of Abydos(?), the great god forever and ever(?).

Label for Isis (text to the right of figure 2 of facsimile 3):

Isis the great, the god's mother.

Label for Maat (text to the left of figure 4 of facsimile 3):

Maat, mistress of the gods.

Label for Hor the deceased (text in front of figure 5 of facsimile 3):

The Osiris Hor, justified forever.

Label for Anubis (text in front of figure 6 of facsimile 3):

Recitation by Anubis, who makes protection(?), foremost of the embalming booth,...

Invocation (text at bottom line below the illustration):

O gods of the necropolis, gods of the caverns, gods of the south, north, west, and east grant salvation to the Osiris Hor, the justified, born by Taikhibit.

The link of Facsimile No. 3 with Facsimile No. 1 and the papyrus scroll is established by the correlation of the name of the deceased, Hor and the name of his mother, Taikhibit . Another translation of Facsimile No. 3 has been made by Rhodes[73] which is consistent with Ritner's.

Criticism and Response

The arguments concerning the Book of Abraham are primarily concerned with the source and method of the translation of the text and the meaning of the vignettes. Currently there is little disagreement concerning the transliteration of the Egyptian writing on the fragments, as evidenced by the broad agreement in the translations by LDS and non LDS Egyptologists.

The identification of texts is used by critics as evidence against the Book of Abraham's authenticity. The main arguments are:

  • Transliterated text from neither the recovered papyri nor the facsimiles published with the Book of Abraham contain any direct connection, either historical or textual, to Abraham. Abraham's name does not appear anywhere in the papyri or the facsimiles.[74]
  • Joseph Smith’s interpretation of the facsimiles does not bear any similarity to modern Egyptologists' translations of the text in these figures.[75] Apologists respond that some of Joseph Smith's translations restore the original author's symbolic representations and not the literal Egyptian translations.[76]
  • The Joseph Smith Papyri have been determined to be from the late Ptolemaic or early Roman period which is at least 1500 years after Abraham’s lifetime.[77] This is relevant in the context of Joseph Smith's statement that the papyri were "written by his <Abraham's> own hand upon papyrus." Apologists respond that the papryi need only be copies of the original written by Abraham and also claim that there exist some Egyptian scrolls from the same time period that contain the name of Abraham.[78]
  • Anachronisms exist in the Book of Abraham which indicate that it was not written in Abraham’s time.[79]
  • Within a series of documents written by Joseph Smith's scribes, the "Egyptian Alphabet and Grammar", also known as the "Kirtland Egyptian Papers", some manuscripts support the notion that the Book of Abraham was wrongly translated from extant papyrus.[80]

Mormon apologists have presented a number of theories in defense of the authenticity of the Book of Abraham. The most popular theories argue the following:

  • The remaining papyrus fragments are only part of the ones Smith used to translate the Book of Abraham. The fragments may have merely been a starting point for Smith's reconstruction and the bulk of the original papyri have been destroyed.[81] Critics respond noting that facsimile 1 matches the vignette in the existing papyrus and there is a direct reference in the Book of Abraham to facsimile 1.[82]
  • Joseph Smith may have translated the documents by revelation, rather than a standard "translation" of text from one language to another, in a process similar to his translation of the Bible.[83] Critics assert that the “Egyptian Alphabet and Grammar” indicates that Smith did attempt a direct translation.[84] Others note that the revelation theory contradicts Smith's own statements that the Book of Abraham is a translation as described in the original handwritten manuscript of the book as well as in other church documents.[85]
  • Abraham's writings may be esoterically encoded within the Egyptian funerary scrolls, such as through a mnemonic device.[86]
  • The facsimiles were not penned by Abraham, but by a Jewish redactor many centuries later.[87]

Interpretations and contributions to the Latter Day Saint Movement

The text of the Book of Abraham provides justification for important Latter-day Saint doctrines, including the exaltation of man, plurality of gods, priesthood, and pre-mortal existence.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Community of Christ

The Community of Christ, formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS), has not accepted the Book of Abraham as canonical. In 1896, the leaders of the church at the time, Joseph Smith III and Heman C. Smith made the following observation on the Book of Abraham,

The church has never to our knowledge taken any action on this work, either to indorse [sic] or condemn; so it cannot be said to be a church publication; nor can the church be held to answer for the correctness of its teaching. Joseph Smith, as the translator, is committed of course to the correctness of the translation, but not necessarily to the indorsement [sic] of its historical or doctrinal contents.[88]

The Community of Christ notes that the book's accuracy or inaccuracy does not actually have any bearing on Smith's claims to be a prophet, as it was brought about in a manner quite differently than the Book of Mormon, the various sections of the Doctrine and Covenants, and the Inspired Version of the Bible.[citation needed] Smith did not claim to have used any unusual methods in its translation, and, unlike the other works named, its publication seems to be entirely secular.[89] The Community of Christ and many other LDS Restoration denominations reject it as scripture and have no official opinion on it as literature.[citation needed]

Book of Joseph

As noted above, a second untranslated work was identified by Joseph Smith after scrutinizing the original papyri. He noted that one scroll contained "the writings of Joseph of Egypt". Based on descriptions by Oliver Cowdery, some, including Charles M. Larson, believe that the fragments Joseph Smith II, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII are the source of this work.[citation needed]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ [http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=84010fd41d93b010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&hideNav=1&bucket=AllChurchContent&query=Book+of+Abraham&submit=Search
  2. ^ Times and Seasons, Volume III No. 9. Nauvoo, Illinois, March 1, 1842
  3. ^ [1]
  4. ^ A Guide to the Joseph Smith Papyri by John Gee, FARMS, 2000, Provo, Utah pp 4-6.
  5. ^ History of the Church, Vol. 2, Ch. 17, p. 236
  6. ^ The ability to translate Egyptian hieroglyphs stems from the discovery in 1799 of the Rosetta Stone, a large granite tablet which contained a message written in two languages, Egyptian and Greek. Since Greek was well known, the stone made the translation of Egyptian hieroglyphs possible for the first time since antiquity.
  7. ^ A Guide to the Joseph Smith Papyri, pg. 3
  8. ^ History of the Church, Vol. 2, Ch. 17, p. 236. July 1835
  9. ^ A Guide to the Joseph Smith Papyri, pg. 5
  10. ^ History of the Church, Vol. 2, Ch. 17, p. 238
  11. ^ "The Book of Abraham Translated from the Papyrus, by Joseph Smith Chapters". Retrieved 2007-12-06.
  12. ^ "Book of Abraham from MormonWiki.com". Retrieved 2006-08-07.
  13. ^ Abraham 2:10
  14. ^ Abraham 4:1
  15. ^ Abraham 1:1-4
  16. ^ Abraham 3:18-28
  17. ^ "Pearl of Great Price Student Manual, The Book of Abraham, pp 28 - 40". Retrieved 2007-12-06.
  18. ^ Baer 1968, pp. 117–19. See also Ashment 1979, pp. 33–48 and Thompson 1995, pp. 143–160
  19. ^ "Facsimile No. 1". Retrieved 2006-08-07.
  20. ^ Parker 1968, p. 86
  21. ^ http://www.pantheon.org/articles/s/sons_of_horus.html
  22. ^ John Gee, "Notes on the Sons of Horus," FARMS paper GEE-91, Provo, Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1991
  23. ^ Parker 1968, p. 86
  24. ^ http://www.pantheon.org/articles/s/sons_of_horus.html
  25. ^ Parker 1968, p. 86
  26. ^ http://www.pantheon.org/articles/s/sons_of_horus.html
  27. ^ Marc Coenen, An Introduction to the Document of Breathing Made by Isis, Reveu d'Egyptologie 49 (1998): 38 and n.14.
  28. ^ Marc Coenen, An Introduction to the Document of Breathing Made by Isis, Reveu d'Egyptologie 49 (1998): pp 40-41.
  29. ^ Kerry Muhlestein, The Book of Abraham in Its Place,The FARMS Review 17/2 (2005)
  30. ^ Other hypocephali may be viewed at http://www.bowers.org/mummies/spells_image5.html and http://essenes.net/hypo.htm. The the image on the site varies from the Book of Abraham hypocephalus. (since the plate is referred to as the "second facsimile of Abraham," and claims it is contained in the Pearl of Great Price, it appears this plate and the translation are derived from the Joseph Smith papyri.)
  31. ^ Rhodes 1992
  32. ^ "Facsimile No. 2". Retrieved 2006-08-07.
  33. ^ "Facsimile No. 3". Retrieved 2006-08-07.
  34. ^ See for example "The Judgment of the Dead". Retrieved 2006-08-07.
  35. ^ "Osiris". Retrieved 2006-08-07.
  36. ^ Larson 1985, pp. 25
  37. ^ T.B.H. Stenhouse, The Rocky Mountain Saints: A Full and Complete History of the Mormons, pg. 510-519 - online version can be found here
  38. ^ Spaulding n.d., pp. 26–27
  39. ^ Spaulding n.d., p. 24
  40. ^ Spaulding n.d., p. 23
  41. ^ Larson 1985, pp. 25 - "...some elements in several of the drawings appeared to Deveria to be guesswork, probably incorrect restorations of missing sections of the original papyri."
  42. ^ Baer 1968, pp. 111 - Egyptologist Klaus Baer identified it as The Book of Breathings, although he preferred to call it a Breathing Permit - see note 7 in the Baer article on page 111.
  43. ^ Wilson 1968, pp. 68
  44. ^ New York Times, Magazine Section, December 1912. As quoted by Larson 1985, pp. 29
  45. ^ Baer 1968, pp. 118
  46. ^ Parker 1968, pp. 86
  47. ^ The Rock Mountain Saints: A Full and Complete History of the Mormons, Thomas B. H. Stenhouse, pg. 513, 514. D. Appleton and Company. 1878.
  48. ^ Baer 1968, pp. 119
  49. ^ Parker 1968, pp. 86
  50. ^ Larson 1985, pp. 108
  51. ^ Larson 1985, pp. 106, 108
  52. ^ The Improvement Era, Jan. 1968, pp. 12-16
  53. ^ Jay Todd, "Papyri, Joseph Smith”, Encyclopedia of Mormonism Vol. 3
  54. ^ "The Facsimile Found: The Recovery of Joseph Smith's Papyrus Manuscripts", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought (Winter 1967), p. 64
  55. ^ Barney 2006
  56. ^ Wilson 1968, p. 57
  57. ^ Walter Whipple, et al, From the Dust of the Decades (Salt Lake City, 1968) p.116 - as cited by Larson 1985, pp. 36
  58. ^ The Deseret News, Salt Lake City, November 27, 1967
  59. ^ Improvement Era, Feb. 1968, p. 40-H, as quoted at [2]
  60. ^ The Saga of the Book of Abraham, by Mormon scholar Jay M. Todd, p. 364 - as quoted at [3]
  61. ^ Larson 1985, pp. 54 - "...Dr. Nibley was not an Egyptologist, as he himself was first to admit...shortly after learning of [the existence of the papyri], he had begun to study Egyptian in Chicago with Dr. John A. Wilson"
  62. ^ The Improvement Era, February 1968
  63. ^ Abstract of "The Joseph Smith Egyptian Papyri", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Summer 1968, p. 67 and Ritner 2000, p. 97
  64. ^ Baer 1968, pp. 116–17
  65. ^ Rhodes 2005, p. 21, 23
  66. ^ John Gee, The Ancient Owners of the Joseph Smith Papyri [Provo, Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1999], 5
  67. ^ Ritner 2003, p. 169
  68. ^ Parker 1968, p. 98.
  69. ^ Baer 1968, pp. 119–20
  70. ^ Hugh Nibley, The Message of the Joseph Smith Papyri: An Egyptian Endowment [Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1975], 19-23
  71. ^ Ritner 2003, pp. 169–170
  72. ^ Ritner 2003, pp. 176–177
  73. ^ Rhodes 2005, p. 25
  74. ^ Ashment 2000, p. 126. See also translations by Ritner, op. cit., Baer, op. cit., and Parker, op. cit.
  75. ^ Thompson 1995, pp. 148–152.
  76. ^ "The Joseph Smith Hypocephalus ... Twenty Years Later" (PDF). Retrieved 2006-08-07. In this article, Michael D. Rhodes examines facsimile 2, the hypocephalus, and notes that the four sons of Horus (figure 6) plausibly fits with Joseph Smith's explanation that the figure "represents this earth in its four quarters".
  77. ^ Baer 1968, p. 111 and Parker 1968, p. 98. Also in Hugh Nibley, The Message of the Joseph Smith Papyri: An Egyptian Endowment, [Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1975], p. 3, where Nibley noted the 1st century A.D. for the dating of the papyrus. See also Michael D. Rhodes, The Ensign, July 1988, pp. 51-53.
  78. ^ "Could there have been a real Egyptian scroll that actually, literally discussed Abraham?". Retrieved 2006-08-07.
  79. ^ Thompson 1995, pp. 152–156. Thompson notes at least "four anachronistic names in the text; Chaldea, Potiphar, Egyptus, and probably Pharaoh".
  80. ^ "Egyptian Alphabet and Grammar". Retrieved 2006-08-07.
  81. ^ Gee 1992, pp. 93–119 and Rhodes 1992, pp. 120–126
  82. ^ Thompson 1995, p. 154. The link between the Book of Abraham text and facsimile 1 can be found in Abraham 1:12-14, where Abraham purportedly wrote, "... I will refer you to the representation at the commencement of this record. It was made after the form of a bedstead, such as was had among the Chaldeans, and it stood before the gods of Elkenah, Libnah, Mahmackrah, Korash, and also a god like unto that of Pharaoh, king of Egypt. That you may have an understanding of these gods, I have given you the fashion of them in the figures at the beginning, which manner of figures is called by the Chaldeans Rahleenos, which signifies hieroglyphics."
  83. ^ Michael D. Rhodes and John Gee, Interview on KSL Radio on January 29, 2006 and Michael D. Rhodes, The Ensign, July 1988, pp. 52-53.
  84. ^ Smith 1990, pp. 167–169. The title of the article refers to an incident where Josiah Quincy, the famous mayor of Boston, met Joseph Smith and was shown the papyrus. Quincy stated, "Some parchments inscribed with hieroglyphics were then offered us. They were preserved under glass and handled with great respect. `That is the handwriting of Abraham, the father of the Faithful,’ said the prophet." See Josiah Quincy, Figures of the Past, 3rd. ed. Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1883.
  85. ^ "Jerald and Sandra Tanner, Salt Lake City Messenger, issue 82, September 1992, Salt Lake City, Utah". Retrieved 2006-08-07. At the beginning of the handwritten manuscript of the Book of Abraham, Joseph Smith asserted that it was a "Translation of the Book of Abraham written by his own hand upon papyrus and found in the catacombs of Egypt." In the History of the Church, vol. 2, pp. 236, 286, and 320, Smith describes his work on the translation of Egyptian records from the papyrus.
  86. ^ "Mnemonic Device of the Joseph Smith Papyri, Egyptian Alphabet & Grammar & the Book of Abraham". Retrieved 2006-08-07.
  87. ^ Barney 2006, pp. 115–116.
  88. ^ Joseph Smith III and Heman C. Smith, The History of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, Vol. II, p. 569, Lamoni, Iowa: Herald Publishing House, 1896
  89. ^ See Question Time, Volume 1, page 75, Question #63, Herald House, 1975

References

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