The ends justify the means

The ends justify the means, also known as Consequentialism, is a moral philosophy often attributed to Niccolò Machiavelli in his 1513 book The Prince. However, the book contains no equivalent phrase, and the idea dates back further in written history to Plato at around 360 BC. This moral philosophy has evolved to encompass ideas from Marxism and Fascism, that the head of state carries out the moral philosophy on a societal or social level. It is a phrase encompassing two beliefs: (1) that morally wrong actions are sometimes necessary to achieve morally right outcomes, and (2) that actions can only be considered morally right or wrong by virtue of the morality of the outcome. Conversely, people who believe that the consequences of an immoral action are greater than those of the expected outcome will often say that the ends do not justify the means.

History

The debate of whether evil in the name of some ostensibly desirable goal is acceptable is quite ancient, occurring in the surviving texts from Classical Greek philosophy. An example can be found in Plato's Republic, which was written in approximately 360 BC. Plato referred to deception in the name of good as "The Noble Lie," but was adamantly opposed in this by many more principled classical philosophers.

It was also debated, from both sides, in Christianity, with Thomas Aquinas, Descartes, Martin Luther denying its value, but entire movements drifting toward it. It was one of the arguments Luther gave for the reform of Christianity, spawning the secession from the Catholic Church. Apostle Paul himself argued that immoral behavior was acceptable as long as it spread Christianity, for example he said:

"[I]t is true that some preach Christ out of envy and rivalry, but others out of goodwill. The latter do so in love, knowing that I am put here for the defense of the gospel. The former preach Christ out of selfish ambition, not sincerely, supposing that they can stir up trouble for me while I am in chains. But what does it matter? The important thing is that in every way, whether from false motives or true, Christ is preached. And because of this I rejoice."

—Philippians 1:15-18

This was contrasted by others, though, with Gospels, where Jesus often seemed to place principle over form, as when defending sinners against prosecution.

In 1513, Niccolò Machiavelli, in The Prince, did seem to say that rulers must only pretend to be good, while doing evil whenever it's useful, but the book can be read as a means of actually opposing such ideas when such opposition would meet censorship, by ironically overstating a defense of them. The actual phrase "the good end justifies the means" is often attributed to Machiavelli, but there is no documented case of him using (in Italian) those words.

In the modern popularity, the phrase "the ends justify the means" came from Marxism. From Hegel's idea of the dialectic as a means of making "morality" subjective came Marx's materialist dialectic, asserting that one can use a calculus to determine what should be done by the society, allowing for the Dictatorship of the Proletariat to force whatever means were necessary to achieve it. This is a natural outgrowth of the basic mindset for which socialism is named; that it is the group, not the individuals who comprise it. Likewise, Marxism was influenced by Kant's Categorical Imperative, a distillation of collectivist utilitarianism.

In 1936, Leon Trosky's book Their Morals and Ours condemned Stalin for using whatever means necessary to impose his will, arguing that socialists must have morality;[1] but Trotsky said, "[t]he end may justify the means as long as there is something that justifies the end." It was self-describedly amoral Stalinism that dominated the Communist movement.

In 1938, John Dewey, a founding father of the American Socialist Movement, wrote an entire essay explaining the fundamental relationship of the philosophy to Communism. It was called Ends and Means, where he argued, "I hold that the end in the sense of consequences provides the only basis for moral ideas and action, and therefore provides the only justification that can be found for means employed".

Usage

This phrase the ends justify the means is closely associated with Machiavelli and The Prince, credited with helping to advance the colonial and modern forms of imperialism. It should be noted that Machiavelli never wrote the phrase. A more literal translation is "One must consider the final result." (See List of famous misquotations) Also, most experts agree that Machiavelli wasn't necessarily advocating such an outlook in The Prince.

Few people will use the ends justify the means to describe their own views; instead, the phrase is often used to cast suspicion on the actions or motivations of others.

Some free-market libertarians, following Robert Nozick, characterize their views using the reversed slogan the means justify the ends.

Support

Morally wrong actions are sometimes considered necessary to achieve morally right outcomes

The implication is that good ends justify questionable means. Basically, meaning wrong actions are sometimes necessary in order for positive outcomes to happen.

Supporting theories

A commonly held opinion is that persons are willing to commit small moral transgressions in the service of a greater good; such a view is implicit in consequentialist moral theories such as utilitarianism. It is the philosophy that it is acceptable or necessary to use illegal, immoral, or unethical means to achieve a beneficial result, or "the greater good". The theory is subsequently used to support the position that any action in the service of an important enough cause is justified. This view is often attributed to many radical political ideologies, and historical atrocities committed by such groups are said to be caused by 'moral blindness' in which an ultimate goal is used to overrule moral considerations.

Other examples

In this thought experiment, a sheriff in a town in the American Old West places keeping a peaceful environment in his town above all other goals. A mob from the town brings a potentially innocent man before the sheriff and demands he hang the man for murder. The sheriff is faced with two choices; let the potentially innocent man hang or be faced with a riot that could destroy property and harm more innocent individuals. A true Utilitarian would allow the innocent man to hang in order to achieve the greater good. By doing so, he has avoided the deaths of innocents that may ensue from an all out riot.

In some applications, this argument is related to the motto of serving the greater good. The argument implies the means as detrimental to an individual or to a small (i.e., minority) group, but it appears to benefit the majority or the vaguely defined society from the point of view of those who embrace or agree with this justification. For example, "pundits have long cited the ticking-bomb scenario to defend torture as a necessary evil in the war on terror." Former U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld approved methods of torture to expedite the process of intelligence gathering. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice believes "renditions," withholding individuals in countries other than the U.S. with lesser standards of torture and human rights, "take terrorists out of action, and save lives." An FBI agent criticizes CIA methods of torture in a Frontline show Torture Question about extraordinary rendition at Guantanamo Bay detainment camp believing torture victims provide misinformation as a result of stress due to corporal punishment and psychological torture. Some allege they provide disinformation in order delay punishment. Because of these arguments few terrorism experts believe torture is a valid technique of extracting information from suspects

Considering all outcomes of the means

Utilitarian use of the ends justify the means must consider the ends to include all outcomes from the means, not just the goal outcomes. In reality innocent suspects may be tortured due to faulty intelligence. In the above dilemma perfect intelligence on this question is assumed. The ends would include one or more definitely tortured suspects, the possible saving of a thousand civilian lives, the possible future resentment of the various suspects, their families, and the groups that identify with them, the possible appreciation of the saved civilians, their families and groups, the psychological effects on the immediate torturers, their superiors and supporters, their families, the erosion of respect for human rights and dignity among all those who try to justify or even know of this use of torture, plus other un-anticipated side-effects that could last as long as the memory of this event. Also, a precedent is created and after this case sadists might be more inclined to use torture where there is little or no likelihood of a good outcome.

Necessary evil

A Necessary evil is a situation or act considered evil but necessary to ensure good in other areas or to prevent greater wrong. For example, those who believe that a war can be just consider a Just war a necessary evil.

Opposition

The actions are more important than the ends

Deontology is a philosophy where the act of doing good is more important no matter what the outcome becomes.

Unnecessary evil

Most religions do not endorse the utilitarian philosophy. For example, the golden rule, held by Jesus, and the Hindu doctrine of karma would both prohibit actions based on a purely utilitarian justification. The rationale behind this is the doctrine that all will come to light (all will be known, discovered) in the end and that good begets good, and also the doctrine stating that this life on earth is not the primary life.

In Roman Catholic moral theology, Thomas Aquinas states explicitly that an end which is good does not justify the use of evil means to attain that end. Romans 3:8 could be seen as support of his position. Summa Theologiae I-II question 18 article 4

..."Government, even in its best state, is but a necessary evil; in its worst state, an intolerable one." ... "Government, like dress, is the badge of lost innocence; the palaces of kings are built upon the ruins of the bowers of paradise."

—Thomas Paine 1737-1809: Common Sense (1776)

References

• Little Oxford Dictionary of Quotations
• Search Results for “Necessary evil”
• Answers.com "The Ends Justify the Means"

See also

• Consequentialism
• Teleology
• An eye for an eye