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We added a paragraph about the growth and the physiology of the plant.
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We made sure to include all the information from the previous wiki page, and added a lot of information from reviewed papers and books, to provide as much useful information as possible for the wiki-users.
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Like many other [[Legume|legumes]], Bambara groundnut fixes atmospheric nitrogen through the process of [[biological nitrogen fixation]]. Its potential to be used as an alternative to chemical fertilizer in agriculture has been investigated for many years.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1273969680 |title=Food and potential industrial applications of Bambara groundnut |date=2021 |others=Samson A. Oyeyinka, Beatrice I. O. Ade-Omowaye |isbn=978-3-030-73920-1 |location=Cham |oclc=1273969680}}</ref> The process is also very important to improve soil fertility and to supply other non-leguminous crops with the nitrogen left in the soil after the legume is harvested. Bambara groundnut can fix 32 to 81 kg N /ha.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Shailendra Singh |first=Govind Gupta |date=2015 |title=Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR): Current and Future Prospects for Development of Sustainable Agriculture |url=https://doi.org/10.4172/1948-5948.1000188 |journal=Journal of Microbial &amp; Biochemical Technology |volume=07 |issue=02 |doi=10.4172/1948-5948.1000188 |issn=1948-5948}}</ref>
Like many other [[Legume|legumes]], Bambara groundnut fixes atmospheric nitrogen through the process of [[biological nitrogen fixation]]. Its potential to be used as an alternative to chemical fertilizer in agriculture has been investigated for many years.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1273969680 |title=Food and potential industrial applications of Bambara groundnut |date=2021 |others=Samson A. Oyeyinka, Beatrice I. O. Ade-Omowaye |isbn=978-3-030-73920-1 |location=Cham |oclc=1273969680}}</ref> The process is also very important to improve soil fertility and to supply other non-leguminous crops with the nitrogen left in the soil after the legume is harvested. Bambara groundnut can fix 32 to 81 kg N /ha.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Shailendra Singh |first=Govind Gupta |date=2015 |title=Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR): Current and Future Prospects for Development of Sustainable Agriculture |url=https://doi.org/10.4172/1948-5948.1000188 |journal=Journal of Microbial &amp; Biochemical Technology |volume=07 |issue=02 |doi=10.4172/1948-5948.1000188 |issn=1948-5948}}</ref>


==Uses==
== Cultivation ==


===Culinary use===
=== Soil requirements ===
Optimal soils for Bambara groundnut production are sandy soils to prevent [[Waterlogging (agriculture)|waterlogging]]. Well-drained soils make the harvest easier<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |author1=Gouertoumbo, WF |last1=Temegne |first1=NC |author2=Wakem, GA |author3=Nkou, FTD |author4=Youmbi, E |author5=Ntsomboh-Ntsefong G |date=2018 |title=Origin and Ecology of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna Subterranea (L.) Verdc: A Review |journal=Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources |volume=2 |issue=4 |issn=2578-4994}}</ref> and prevent rotting of the pods.<ref name=":8">{{cite book |title=Food and Potential Industrial Applications of Bambara Groundnut |date=2021 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-73919-5 |editor1-last=Oyeyinka |editor1-first=Samson A. |location=Cham |editor2-last=Ade-Omowaye |editor2-first=Beatrice I.O.}}</ref> Stony areas should however be avoided to prevent damage of the pods.<ref name=":8" />
The seeds are used for food, beverages because of their high protein content<ref name=ecocrop>{{cite web|title=Data sheet Vigna subterranea|url=http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/dataSheet?id=10830|work=Ecocrop|publisher=FAO|access-date=16 March 2011}}</ref> and for digestive system applications.<ref name=ecocrop /> The entire plant is known for soil improvement<ref name=ecocrop /> because of nitrogen fixation. In West Africa, the nuts are eaten as a snack, roasted and salted, processed into cake, or as a meal, boiled similar to other beans.


Optimal soil depth is between 50 and 100&nbsp;cm,<ref name="ecocrop22">{{cite web |title=Data sheet Vigna subterranea |url=http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/dataSheet?id=10830 |access-date=16 March 2011 |work=Ecocrop |publisher=FAO}}</ref> with a light soil texture.<ref name="ecocrop22" /> Soil fertility should be low<ref name="ecocrop22" /> and [[soil pH]] is best suited between 5 and 6.5<ref name="ecocrop22" /> and should not be lower than 4.3<ref name="ecocrop22" /> or higher than 7.<ref name="ecocrop22" /> Bambara groundnut is tolerant to [[Soil salinity|salinity]], but high sodium chloride concentration in the soil will result in yield losses.
In South Eastern Nigeria, particularly in Enugu, the dried bambara beans are ground into a fine powder, then mixed with palm oil, water and pumpkin leaves and then poured into banana leaf wraps or one-litre cellophane bags before being boiled into a pudding to make ''okpa'', a common breakfast food. During the rainy season in many parts of central Nigeria, the fresh bambara beans are cooked with their shells still on them, then eaten as a snack.


===Soil requirements===
=== Climate requirements ===
The production is best suited between a latitude of 20°- 30°,<ref name="ecocrop3">{{cite web |title=Data sheet Vigna subterranea |url=http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/dataSheet?id=10830 |access-date=16 March 2011 |work=Ecocrop |publisher=FAO}}</ref> i.e. the tropical wet and dry ([[Köppen climate classification|Aw]])<ref name="ecocrop3" /> and the subtropical dry summer ([[Köppen climate classification|Cs]])<ref name="ecocrop3" /> climate zones. Optimal temperature is between 19&nbsp;°C<ref name="ecocrop3" /> and 30&nbsp;°C.<ref name="ecocrop3" /> Temperatures below 16&nbsp;°C<ref name="ecocrop3" /> and above 38&nbsp;°C<ref name="ecocrop3" /> are not suited for the production of Bambara groundnut.
Optimal soils for Bambara groundnut production are sandy soils to prevent waterlogging. Optimal soil depth is between 50 and 100&nbsp;cm,<ref name=ecocrop /> with a light soil texture.<ref name=ecocrop /> soil fertility should be low<ref name=ecocrop /> and [[soil pH]] is best suited between 5 and 6.5<ref name=ecocrop /> and should not be lower than 4.3<ref name=ecocrop /> or higher than 7.<ref name=ecocrop />


The Bambara groundnut is very drought-resistant.<ref name="ecoport4">{{cite web |last=Nichterlein |first=Karin |title=Vigna subterranea |url=http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=10830&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full |access-date=16 March 2011 |publisher=Ecoport}}</ref> The minimal annual rainfall requirement is about 300&nbsp;mm<ref name="ecocrop3" /> and optimal annual rainfall is between 750&nbsp;mm<ref name="ecocrop3" /> and 1400&nbsp;mm<ref name="ecocrop3" /> and should not exceed 3000&nbsp;mm.<ref name="ecocrop3" /> Bambara groundnut can tolerate heavy rainfall, but it will result in yield losses if they happen at harvest.<ref name=":82">{{cite book |title=Food and Potential Industrial Applications of Bambara Groundnut |date=2021 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-73919-5 |editor1-last=Oyeyinka |editor1-first=Samson A. |location=Cham |editor2-last=Ade-Omowaye |editor2-first=Beatrice I.O.}}</ref>
===Climate requirements===
The production is best suited between a latitude of 20° - 30°,<ref name="ecocrop"/> i.e. the tropical wet and dry ([[Köppen climate classification|Aw]])<ref name=ecocrop /> and the subtropical dry summer ([[Köppen climate classification|Cs]])<ref name=ecocrop /> climate zones. Optimal temperature is between 19&nbsp;°C<ref name=ecocrop /> and 30&nbsp;°C.<ref name=ecocrop /> Temperatures below 16&nbsp;°C<ref name=ecocrop /> and above 38&nbsp;°C<ref name=ecocrop /> are not suited for the production of bambara groundnut. The bambara groundnut is very drought-resistant.<ref name="ecoport">{{cite web |last=Nichterlein |first=Karin |title=Vigna subterranea |url=http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=10830&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full |access-date=16 March 2011 |publisher=Ecoport}}</ref> The minimal annual rainfall requirement is about 300&nbsp;mm<ref name=ecocrop /> and optimal annual rainfall is between 750&nbsp;mm<ref name=ecocrop /> and 1400&nbsp;mm<ref name=ecocrop /> and should not exceed 3000&nbsp;mm.<ref name=ecocrop />


=== Seedbed requirements and sowing ===
===Cropping system===
Before sowing, the seeds can be treated with [[Pesticide|pesticides]] to prevent insect and fungal attack, and being eaten by bush fowl (''Numida meleagris''). Priming the seeds with water by soaking them overnight and then drying them before sowing improves seedling emergence, vigour and yield.<ref name=":83">{{cite book |title=Food and Potential Industrial Applications of Bambara Groundnut |date=2021 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-73919-5 |editor1-last=Oyeyinka |editor1-first=Samson A. |location=Cham |editor2-last=Ade-Omowaye |editor2-first=Beatrice I.O.}}</ref>
The cropping system is semi-permanent and the Bambara groundnut can be cultivated as single crop or as [[Intercropping|intercrop]].<ref name=ecocrop /> Best suited intercrops are [[Sorghum bicolor|sorghum]], [[millet]], [[maize]], [[peanut]], [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] and [[cassava]].<ref name=ecocrop />


Sowing is usually performed manually by peasant farmers in tropical Africa, but it can also be done mechanically on industrial farms using modified soya bean planters. Manual sowing is generally done using a [[Hoe (tool)|hoe]] or a cutlass to open the soil. One seed is placed in each hole which are then closed.<ref name=":83" />
Bambara groundnut is mainly cultivated as [[Intercropping|intercrop]], however the planting density varies between 6 and 29 plants per square meter.<ref name=Rassel>{{cite journal|last=Rassel|first=A|title=Voandzou, Voandzeia subterranea Thouars, and its cultivation in Kwango|journal=Bull. Agric. Congo Belge|year=1960|volume=51|pages=1–26|url=http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19601403615.html?freeview=true|access-date=16 March 2011}}</ref> For woodland savannas of Côte d'Ivoire the highest yield is attainable with a plant density of 25<ref name=Kouassi>{{cite journal|last=Kouassi|first=N’. J|author2=I. A. Zoro Bi |title=Effect Of Sowing Density And Seedbed Type On Yield And Yield Components In Bambara Groundnut (''Vigna subterranea'') In Woodland Savannas Of Cote D'ivoire|journal=Experimental Agriculture|year=2010|volume=46|pages=99–110|doi=10.1017/S0014479709990494|s2cid=86318620}}</ref> plants per square meter.


Seedbed type doesn’t seem to affect yield or biomass production of Bambara groundnut.<ref name=":9">{{cite journal |author1=Bi, I.A.Z. |last1=Kouassi |first1=N.J. |date=2010 |title=Effect of sowing density and seedbed type on yield and yield components in bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) in woodland savannas of Cote d'Ivoire |journal=Experimental Agriculture |volume=46 |issue=1 |page=99-110 |doi=10.1017/S0014479709990494}}</ref> The crop can thus be planted on flat terrain, although it is also planted in ridges.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |author1=Donkoh |last1=Adzawla |first1=W |author1-link=SA |author2=Nyarko, G |author3=O'Reilly, P |author4=Mayes, S |date=2016 |title=Use patterns and perceptions about the attributes of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) in Northern Ghana |journal=Ghana Journal of Science, Technology and Development |volume=4 |issue=2}}</ref> Studies show that increased sowing density has a positive effect on production calculated on a per-area basis, but has a negative effect on per-plant yield. It is assumed that at higher sowing densities, increased competition between plants is the cause of lower pod and seed number per plant.<ref name=":9" />
===Production===

World production of ''Vigna subterranea'' increased from 29,800 tonnes in 1972<ref name=FAO>{{cite web|title=FAOSTAT |url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor |publisher=FAO |access-date=2 February 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906230329/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567 |archive-date=September 6, 2015 }}</ref> to 79,155 tonnes<ref name=FAO /> in 2015.
=== Cropping system and fertilization ===
The cropping system is semi-permanent and the Bambara groundnut can be cultivated as single crop or as [[Intercropping|intercrop]].<ref name="ecocrop4">{{cite web |title=Data sheet Vigna subterranea |url=http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/dataSheet?id=10830 |access-date=16 March 2011 |work=Ecocrop |publisher=FAO}}</ref> Best suited intercrops are [[Sorghum bicolor|sorghum]], [[millet]], [[maize]], [[peanut]], [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] and [[cassava]].<ref name="ecocrop4" /> Bambara groundnut is mainly cultivated as [[Intercropping|intercrop]], however the planting density varies between 6 and 29 plants per square meter.<ref name="Rassel2">{{cite journal |last=Rassel |first=A |year=1960 |title=Voandzou, Voandzeia subterranea Thouars, and its cultivation in Kwango |url=http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19601403615.html?freeview=true |journal=Bull. Agric. Congo Belge |volume=51 |pages=1–26 |access-date=16 March 2011}}</ref> For woodland savannas of Côte d'Ivoire, the highest yield is attainable with a plant density of 25<ref name="Kouassi2">{{cite journal |last=Kouassi |first=N’. J |author2=I. A. Zoro Bi |year=2010 |title=Effect Of Sowing Density And Seedbed Type On Yield And Yield Components In Bambara Groundnut (''Vigna subterranea'') In Woodland Savannas Of Cote D'ivoire |journal=Experimental Agriculture |volume=46 |pages=99–110 |doi=10.1017/S0014479709990494 |s2cid=86318620}}</ref> plants per square meter. Despite its suitability for intercropping systems due to its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen <ref>{{cite web |last1=FAO |title=Bambara groundnut |url=https://www.fao.org/traditional-crops/bambaragroundnut/en/ |access-date=10.11.2022}}</ref>, a non-negligible proportion of farmers grow the Bambara groundnut in monoculture and report that its performance is better as a single crop.<ref name=":12">{{cite journal |author1=Donkoh |last1=Adzawla |first1=W |author1-link=SA |author2=Nyarko, G |author3=O'Reilly, P |author4=Mayes, S |date=2016 |title=Use patterns and perceptions about the attributes of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) in Northern Ghana |journal=Ghana Journal of Science, Technology and Development |volume=4 |issue=2}}</ref> Cultivation is mainly performed manually and is comparable to the production of [[peanut]].<ref name=":72">{{cite book |last1=National Research Council |title=Lost Crops of Africa. Volume II: Vegetables |date=2006 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=0-309-10333-9 |location=Washington DC}}</ref>

The crop needs less mineral elements than groundnuts (''Arachis hypogaea L.'') and, therefore, has higher yields on low-fertility soils. Nevertheless, fertilization, especially with phosphate, can still improve the yield and growth development of the Bambara groudnut.<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |author1=Gouertoumbo, WF |last1=Temegne |first1=NC |author2=Wakem, GA |author3=Nkou, FTD |author4=Youmbi, E |author5=Ntsomboh-Ntsefong G |date=2018 |title=Origin and Ecology of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna Subterranea (L.) Verdc: A Review |journal=Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources |volume=2 |issue=4 |issn=2578-4994}}</ref> Depending on the soil and the country, the application of superphosphate ranging from 60 to 250 kg/ha has been shown to significantly improve the yield of this crop. A study in Cameroon also managed to use arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to improve the crop performance by biological fertilization. Since nitrogen is provided by the symbiotic [[Rhizobium]] bacteria, additional nitrogen fertilization is usually not necessary.<ref name=":22" /> High nitrogen levels in the soil even result in fewer pods and lower seed production. However, nitrogen fertilization can be beneficial in some cases, notably when assimilation is poor and at early growth stages.

=== Harvest and postharvest treatment ===
The Bambara bean typically takes about 130-150 days to mature, but early or late harvests only marginally reduce the yield.<ref name=":73">{{cite book |last1=National Research Council |title=Lost Crops of Africa. Volume II: Vegetables |date=2006 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=0-309-10333-9 |location=Washington DC}}</ref> The pods, which grow belowground, are harvested manually by pulling out the whole crop and picking the pods by hand.<ref name=":13">{{cite journal |author1=Donkoh |last1=Adzawla |first1=W |author1-link=SA |author2=Nyarko, G |author3=O'Reilly, P |author4=Mayes, S |date=2016 |title=Use patterns and perceptions about the attributes of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) in Northern Ghana |journal=Ghana Journal of Science, Technology and Development |volume=4 |issue=2}}</ref> Then, they are usually dried in the sun for some days.<ref name=":73" /> Post-harvest losses are reported to be on a low level.<ref name=":13" /> However, insect pests can cause damage to stored grains, most importantly [[Bean weevil|Bruchids]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Majola |first=Nomathemba Gloria |last2=Gerrano |first2=Abe Shegro |last3=Shimelis |first3=Hussein |date=2021-07 |title=Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea [L.] Verdc.) Production, Utilisation and Genetic Improvement in Sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/11/7/1345 |journal=Agronomy |language=en |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1345 |doi=10.3390/agronomy11071345 |issn=2073-4395}}</ref>

=== Interactions: Pests, diseases, symbionts ===
It is widely regarded as a pest and disease resistant crop. However, there is a lack of evidence to support this claim, with reports of fungal attacks by [[Rhizoctonia solani|''Rhizoctonia solani'']] in Southern Thailand, and ''Cercospora canescens'' and ''[[Colletotrichum capsici]]'' in Nigeria, causing [[brown blotch disease]]. The crop is also susceptible to attack by cowpea weevil (''[[Callosobruchus maculatus]]'').<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Azman Halimi |first=Razlin |last2=Barkla |first2=Bronwyn J. |last3=Mayes |first3=Sean |last4=King |first4=Graham J. |date=2019-04-01 |title=The potential of the underutilized pulse bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) for nutritional food security |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S088915751830766X |journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis |language=en |volume=77 |pages=47–59 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2018.12.008 |issn=0889-1575}}</ref>

== Production ==

=== Importance ===
The annual production of Bambara groundnut is estimated to be 0.2 million tonnes from an area of 0.25 million hectares worldwide. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is the largest producer of Bambara groundnut, while a small quantity is produced in Southeast Asia (e.g., Thailand and Indonesia), the United States of America (USA), and Australia. Additionally, the crop is cultivated in Brazil, where it was putatively introduced in the 1600s with the slave trade.<ref name=":74">{{cite book |last1=National Research Council |title=Lost Crops of Africa. Volume II: Vegetables |date=2006 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=0-309-10333-9 |location=Washington DC}}</ref> West Africa is the main Bambara groundnut production region in SSA, where Burkina Faso, Niger, and Cameroon are the leading producers, contributing to 74% of global production.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal |last=Majola |first=Nomathemba Gloria |last2=Gerrano |first2=Abe Shegro |last3=Shimelis |first3=Hussein |date=2021-07 |title=Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea [L.] Verdc.) Production, Utilisation and Genetic Improvement in Sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/11/7/1345 |journal=Agronomy |language=en |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1345 |doi=10.3390/agronomy11071345 |issn=2073-4395}}</ref> However, it was reported by Ghanaean farmers to contribute neither to a large part of the subsistence food nor of the income.<ref name=":14">{{cite journal |author1=Donkoh |last1=Adzawla |first1=W |author1-link=SA |author2=Nyarko, G |author3=O'Reilly, P |author4=Mayes, S |date=2016 |title=Use patterns and perceptions about the attributes of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) in Northern Ghana |journal=Ghana Journal of Science, Technology and Development |volume=4 |issue=2}}</ref>

=== Worldwide production and yield ===
World production of ''Vigna subterranea'' increased from 29,800 tonnes in 1972<ref name="FAO">{{cite web |title=FAOSTAT |url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906230329/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567 |archive-date=September 6, 2015 |access-date=2 February 2015 |publisher=FAO}}</ref> to 79,155 tonnes<ref name="FAO" /> in 2015.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!Production Year 2013 ''<small>(Source [https://web.archive.org/web/20150906230329/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor FAOSTAT])<ref name="FAO2">{{cite web |title=FAOSTAT |url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906230329/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567 |archive-date=September 6, 2015 |access-date=2 February 2015 |publisher=FAO}}</ref></small>''
!Area Harvested (Ha)
!Yield (kg/ha)
!Production (tonnes)
|-
|-
|{{flag|Mali}}
! Production Year 2013 ''<small>(Source [https://web.archive.org/web/20150906230329/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor FAOSTAT])<ref name=FAO /></small> !! Area Harvested (Ha) !! Yield (kg/ha) !! Production (tonnes)
|120,000
|9,498
|113,981
|-
|-
| {{flag|Mali}} || 120,000 || 9,498 || 113,981
|{{flag|Niger}}
|68,000
|4,412
|30,000
|-
|-
|{{flag|Burkina Faso}}
| {{flag|Niger}} || 68,000 || 4,412 || 30,000
|55,000
|8,909
|49,000
|-
|-
|{{flag|Cameroon}}
| {{flag|Burkina Faso}} || 55,000 || 8,909 || 49,000
|43,392
|8,444
|36,639
|-
|-
| {{flag|Cameroon}} || 43,392 || 8,444 || 36,639
|{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
|4,828
|750
|14,000
|-
|-
|'''World'''
| {{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} || 4,828 || 750 || 14,000
|'''315,392'''
|'''7,724'''
|'''243,620'''
|}
The top six Bambara groundnut producing countries in Africa in 2018 include Burkina Faso, Niger, Cameroon, Mali, Togo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo with a total production of 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02, and 0.01 million tonnes, respectively.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Majola |first=Nomathemba Gloria |last2=Gerrano |first2=Abe Shegro |last3=Shimelis |first3=Hussein |date=2021-07 |title=Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea [L.] Verdc.) Production, Utilisation and Genetic Improvement in Sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/11/7/1345 |journal=Agronomy |language=en |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1345 |doi=10.3390/agronomy11071345 |issn=2073-4395}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=FAO {{!}} Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/fr/c/cb4831fr/ |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=www.fao.org |language=fr |doi=10.4060/cb4831fr}}</ref>

The yield level of Bambara groundnut in Africa varies from 0.6−1 t ha<sup>-1</sup> , depending on variety and production conditions. However, unshelled mean yields of up to 3 t ha<sup>-1</sup> were reported when cultivating some landraces in the transition agro-ecological zone in Nigeria . A low mean yield of 0.85 t ha<sup>-1</sup> was reported in Ghana under good management practices close to yield levels of other legumes such as cowpeas (0.80 t ha<sup>-1</sup>) and pigeon peas (0.78 t ha<sup>-1</sup>).<ref name=":33" />

== Nutrition ==
This nutrient-dense [[legume]] is sometimes termed a “complete food” due to its balanced macronutrient composition.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tan |first=Xin Lin |last2=Azam-Ali |first2=Susan |last3=Goh |first3=Ee Von |last4=Mustafa |first4=Maysoun |last5=Chai |first5=Hui Hui |last6=Ho |first6=Wai Kuan |last7=Mayes |first7=Sean |last8=Mabhaudhi |first8=Tafadzwanashe |last9=Azam-Ali |first9=Sayed |last10=Massawe |first10=Festo |date=2020 |title=Bambara Groundnut: An Underutilized Leguminous Crop for Global Food Security and Nutrition |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2020.601496 |journal=Frontiers in Nutrition |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fnut.2020.601496 |issn=2296-861X |pmc=PMC7758284 |pmid=33363196}}</ref> It is considered to be a [[Neglected and underutilized crop|neglected and underutilized food source]] in [[Benin]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dansi |first=A. |author2=R. Vodouhe |author3=P. Azokpota |display-authors=etal |date=19 April 2012 |title=Diversity of the Neglected and Underutilized Crop Species of Importance in Benin |journal=The Scientific World Journal |volume=2012 |pages=932947 |doi=10.1100/2012/932947 |pmc=3349165 |pmid=22593712}}</ref> The brown hull showed the highest concentrations of [[rutin]] and [[myricetin]] among [[Flavonoid|flavonoids]], while the red hull resulted in having with the highest concentrations of [[Chlorogenic acid|chlorogenic]] and [[ellagic acid]] among [[tannin]] compounds.<ref name="Harris">{{cite journal |author=Taahir Harris |author2=Victoria Jideani |author3=MarilizeLe Roes-Hill |date=September 1, 2018 |title=Flavonoids and tannin composition of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) of Mpumalanga, South Africa |url=https://www.x-mol.com/paper/837047 |journal=Heliyon |volume=4 |issue=9 |page=e00833 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00833 |pmc=6168962 |pmid=30294697}}</ref>

=== Macronutrient content ===
{{Graph:PieChart|legend=Macronutrient content of Bambara groundnuts|values=[{"x":"Carbohydrates = 64%", "y": 64}, {"x":"Proteins = 24%", "y": 24}, {"x":"Total fat = 7%", "y": 7}, {"x":"Total dietary fibers = 5%", "y": 5}]}}Bambara groundnut has nutritive value ranging between 57.9% to 64% [[carbohydrate]] and 24.0% to 25.5% [[Protein (nutrient)|protein]] content.<ref name="KaptsoNjintang20142">{{cite journal |last1=Kaptso |first1=Kuaté Giscard |last2=Njintang |first2=Yanou Nicolas |last3=Nguemtchouin |first3=Mbouga Marie Goletti |last4=Scher |first4=Joël |last5=Hounhouigan |first5=Joseph |last6=Mbofung |first6=Carl Moses |year=2014 |title=Physicochemical and micro-structural properties of flours, starch and proteins from two varieties of legumes: bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) |journal=Journal of Food Science and Technology |volume=52 |issue=8 |pages=4915–4924 |doi=10.1007/s13197-014-1580-7 |issn=0022-1155 |pmc=4519478 |pmid=26243911}}</ref> In comparison, soybean (''Glycine max'') and chickpea (''Cicer ariteneum'') have 27% and 61% of carbohydrates.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last=Azman Halimi |first=Razlin |last2=Barkla |first2=Bronwyn J. |last3=Mayes |first3=Sean |last4=King |first4=Graham J. |date=2019-04-01 |title=The potential of the underutilized pulse bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) for nutritional food security |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S088915751830766X |journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis |language=en |volume=77 |pages=47–59 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2018.12.008 |issn=0889-1575}}</ref>

=== Micronutrient content ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+Micronutrient content of the Bambara groundnut.<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal |last=Azman Halimi |first=Razlin |last2=Barkla |first2=Bronwyn J. |last3=Mayes |first3=Sean |last4=King |first4=Graham J. |date=2019-04-01 |title=The potential of the underutilized pulse bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) for nutritional food security |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S088915751830766X |journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis |language=en |volume=77 |pages=47–59 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2018.12.008 |issn=0889-1575}}</ref>
!Micronutrient
!Content
!Comparison with chickpeas
|-
|-
|Sodium (mg)
| '''World''' || '''315,392''' || '''7,724''' || '''243,620'''
|0.90 – 25.20
|6.7 – 111.57
|-
|Potassium (mg)
|308.40 – 2200.00
|994. 5 – 1279.82
|-
|Phosphorus (mg)
|173.97 – 563.00
|241. 92 – 571.00
|-
|Calcium (mg)
|0.39 – 76.01
|81.70 – 222.65
|-
|Magnesium (mg)
|124.99 – 555.10
|3.21 – 191.00
|-
|Iron (mg)
|11.38 – 149.50
|4.49 – 53.43
|-
|Zinc (mg)
|2.14 – 19.73
|2.45 – 6.33
|}
|}


=== Anti-nutritional factors ===
==Physiology==
The presence of [[Anti-nutritional factor|anti-nutritional factors]] (ANFs) in the ''Vigna subterranea'' can reduce protein digestibility, affecting [[bioavailability]] of [[Amino acid|amino acids]] by up to 50%, as well as lowering digestibility and bioavailability of other nutrients. ANFs include [[Enzyme inhibitor|enzyme inhibitors]], [[flatulence]] factors, [[Tannin|tannins]], [[phytic acid]] and [[Saponin|saponins]]. <ref name=":05">{{Cite journal |last=Azman Halimi |first=Razlin |last2=Barkla |first2=Bronwyn J. |last3=Mayes |first3=Sean |last4=King |first4=Graham J. |date=2019-04-01 |title=The potential of the underutilized pulse bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) for nutritional food security |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S088915751830766X |journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis |language=en |volume=77 |pages=47–59 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2018.12.008 |issn=0889-1575}}</ref>ANFs can be removed or lowered by a variety of treatments:

# Cooking and thermal treatment of pulse seeds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Melini |first=Valentina |last2=Melini |first2=Francesca |date=2021-02-07 |title=Functional Components and Anti-Nutritional Factors in Gluten-Free Grains: A Focus on Quinoa Seeds |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods10020351 |journal=Foods |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=351 |doi=10.3390/foods10020351 |issn=2304-8158}}</ref>
# Soaking followed by cooking of Bambara groundnut seeds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Katungwe |first=Patricia |last2=Mwangwela |first2=Agnes M. |last3=Geresomo |first3=Numeri C. |date=2014-06-01 |title=Acceptability of Foods Containing Bambara Groundnut Among Children from Bambara Groundnut Farming Households in Ntchisi District of Malawi |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jnef.2014.1073 |journal=Journal of Nutritional Ecology and Food Research |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=116–121 |doi=10.1166/jnef.2014.1073 |issn=2326-4225}}</ref>
# Processing methods such as soaking, [[germination]], [[fermentation]], and treatment with [[phytase]] have been successful in reducing phytic acid content of chickpeas, sorghum and millet.<ref name=":62">{{Cite journal |last=Shailendra Singh |first=Govind Gupta |date=2015 |title=Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR): Current and Future Prospects for Development of Sustainable Agriculture |url=https://doi.org/10.4172/1948-5948.1000188 |journal=Journal of Microbial &amp; Biochemical Technology |volume=07 |issue=02 |doi=10.4172/1948-5948.1000188 |issn=1948-5948}}</ref>
# Applications of pressure, heat, infrared radiation, dry extrusion and chemicals such as cysteine have been shown to reduce [[trypsin inhibitor]] activity in whole [[soybean]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vagadia |first=Brinda Harish |last2=Vanga |first2=Sai Kranthi |last3=Raghavan |first3=Vijaya |date=2017-06-01 |title=Inactivation methods of soybean trypsin inhibitor – A review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924224415301928 |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |language=en |volume=64 |pages=115–125 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2017.02.003 |issn=0924-2244}}</ref>

== Culinary use ==
The seeds are used for food, beverages because of their high protein content<ref name="ecocrop52">{{cite web |title=Data sheet Vigna subterranea |url=http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/dataSheet?id=10830 |access-date=16 March 2011 |work=Ecocrop |publisher=FAO}}</ref> and for digestive system applications.<ref name="ecocrop52" /> In West Africa, the nuts are eaten as a snack, roasted and salted, processed into cake, or as a meal, boiled similar to other beans.

The Bambara groundnut needs to be cooked for a relatively long time, which means that more fuel is needed than for cooking other legumes. The cooking time of fresh beans is 45-60 minutes, dry beans may even take 3-4 hours.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Hillocks, R.J. |last1=Hillocks |first1=R.J. |author2=Bennett, C. |author3=Mponda, O.M. |date=2012 |title=Bambara Nut: A Review of Utilisation, Market Potential and Crop Improvement |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/acsj/article/view/78601 |journal=African Crop Science Journal |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=1-16 |issn=1021-9730/2012}}</ref> This presents an obstacle to a more widespread use of this crop. Moreover, if the bean is not cooked enough, it can cause bloating of the stomach, constipation and flatulence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Adzawla |first=W. |last2=Donkoh |first2=S. A. |last3=Nyarko |first3=G. |last4=O'Reilly |first4=P. |last5=Mayes |first5=S. |date=2016 |title=Use patterns and perceptions about the attributes of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) in Northern Ghana |url=http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/2089 |journal=Ghana Journal of Science, Technology and Development |volume=4 |issue=2 |via=UDSspace}}</ref>

=== Traditional culinary use of Bambara groundnut in Nigeria ===
In South Eastern Nigeria, particularly in Enugu, the dried Bambara beans are ground into a fine powder, then mixed with palm oil, water and pumpkin leaves and then poured into banana leaf wraps or one-litre cellophane bags before being boiled into a pudding to make ''[[Okpa]]'', a common breakfast food. During the rainy season in many parts of central Nigeria, the fresh Bambara beans are cooked with their shells still on them, then eaten as a snack.

=== Potential use in probiotic beverage ===
Bambara groundnut milk can be fermented with [[lactic acid bacteria]] to make a [[probiotic]] beverage that not only increase the economic value of the nutritious legume but also help in addressing [[malnutrition]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Murevanhema |first=Yvonne Y. |last2=Jideani |first2=Victoria A. |date=2013-01-01 |title=Potential of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc) Milk as a Probiotic Beverage—A Review |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2011.574803 |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=53 |issue=9 |pages=954–967 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2011.574803 |issn=1040-8398 |pmid=23768187}}</ref>

=== Use as livestock feed ===
The Bambara groundnut plays an important role in the diet and culture of populations. The leaves, rich in phosphorus, are used for livestock feed. Seeds are given to pigs and poultry while leafy stems are used as livestock fodder.<ref name=":34">{{Cite journal |last=Majola |first=Nomathemba Gloria |last2=Gerrano |first2=Abe Shegro |last3=Shimelis |first3=Hussein |date=2021-07 |title=Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea [L.] Verdc.) Production, Utilisation and Genetic Improvement in Sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/11/7/1345 |journal=Agronomy |language=en |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1345 |doi=10.3390/agronomy11071345 |issn=2073-4395}}</ref>

== Potential medicinal use ==
The Bambara groundnut is very interesting for potential medical use due to the [[Flavonoid]] content, which can be as high as 24.46 mg/g (concentration of rutin in brown hulls).<ref name="Harris2">{{cite journal |author=Taahir Harris |author2=Victoria Jideani |author3=MarilizeLe Roes-Hill |date=September 1, 2018 |title=Flavonoids and tannin composition of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) of Mpumalanga, South Africa |url=https://www.x-mol.com/paper/837047 |journal=Heliyon |volume=4 |issue=9 |page=e00833 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00833 |pmc=6168962 |pmid=30294697}}</ref> [[Flavonoid|flavonoids]] have been reported to possess many useful properties, including anti-inflammatory activity, oestrogenic activity, enzyme inhibition, antimicrobial activity antiallergic activity, antioxidant activity, vascular activity and cytotoxic antitumor activity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cushnie |first=T. P. Tim |last2=Lamb |first2=Andrew J. |date=2005-11-01 |title=Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924857905002554 |journal=International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents |language=en |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=343–356 |doi=10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2005.09.002 |issn=0924-8579 |pmc=PMC7127073 |pmid=16323269}}</ref> It is reported an [[Antimicrobial|antimicrobial activity]] against ''[[Klebsiella pneumoniae]]'', ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'', ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'', ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Bacillus cereus]]'', ''[[Candida albicans]]'' (yeast) and ''[[Aspergillus niger]]'' (mold).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ebere Lovelyn Udeh |author2=Monde A. Nyila |author3=Sheku Alfred Kanu |date=October 1, 2020 |title=Nutraceutical and antimicrobial potentials of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean): A review |url= |journal=Heliyon |volume=6 |issue=10 |page=e05205 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05205 |issn=2405-8440 |oclc=8690130189 |pmc=7586076 |pmid=33134573}}</ref>

=== Uses in traditional African medicine ===
The seeds and leaves of Bambara groundnut have been used for a long time in traditional medicine. Leaf preparations are used in Senegal to treat abscesses and infected wounds. The juice extracted from the leaf is applied to the eyes to treat epilepsy and the roots are sometimes used as an aphrodisiac. Crushed seeds, mixed with water, are administered to treat cataracts. The Ibo of Nigeria use the plant to treat venereal diseases. In Cameroon, Bambara groundnuts are used to fight amoebic dysentery, sore throat, headaches, stomach pain, joint pain and bone decalcification. It helps in digestion through its laxative properties. It stimulates milk production in breastfeeding women and is given to women who have just given birth to heal their wounds. Bambara groundnut seeds also contain kaempferol, an antioxidant polyphenol, which reduces the risk of many chronic diseases such as cancer.<ref name=":23">{{cite journal |author1=Gouertoumbo, WF |last1=Temegne |first1=NC |author2=Wakem, GA |author3=Nkou, FTD |author4=Youmbi, E |author5=Ntsomboh-Ntsefong G |date=2018 |title=Origin and Ecology of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna Subterranea (L.) Verdc: A Review |journal=Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources |volume=2 |issue=4 |issn=2578-4994}}</ref> These uses come from the cultural medicine, not evidence-based medicine.

== Future Perspectives for the Crop ==

=== Breeding aims ===
There are a lot of genetic resources available for breeding since around 6145 germplasms of the Bambara groundnut have been collected and are stored ex situ (Khan et al. 2021).


The primary goal of Bambara improvement programs is to focus on seed yield and nutritional quality traits. There is a notable gap between the potential yield of 4 t/ha and the average yield of 0.85 t/ha reported for African countries. Thus, breeding should aim at improving the yield. Results of studies exhibited high protein content among the test genotypes. Similarly, high levels of essential fatty acids, thiamine, ribovin, and vitamin K were recorded. Moreover, scientists <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Azman Halimi |first=Razlin |last2=Barkla |first2=Bronwyn J. |last3=Mayes |first3=Sean |last4=King |first4=Graham J. |date=2019-04-01 |title=The potential of the underutilized pulse bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) for nutritional food security |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S088915751830766X |journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis |language=en |volume=77 |pages=47–59 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2018.12.008 |issn=0889-1575}}</ref> examined the chemical properties of starches in Bambara groundnut. The results revealed that seed source/origin and crop management practices affected chemical composition. Food fortification, the use of artificial supplements, and food imports are among the strategies used to overcome the problem of malnutrition in Africa. The adoption of traditional plant breeding methods to enhance nutritional benefits of orphan food crops such as Bambara groundnut is an economic and affordable strategy to decrease malnutrition in Africa.<ref name=":35">{{Cite journal |last=Majola |first=Nomathemba Gloria |last2=Gerrano |first2=Abe Shegro |last3=Shimelis |first3=Hussein |date=2021-07 |title=Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea [L.] Verdc.) Production, Utilisation and Genetic Improvement in Sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/11/7/1345 |journal=Agronomy |language=en |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=1345 |doi=10.3390/agronomy11071345 |issn=2073-4395}}</ref>
===Growth===
The growth cycle is between (min-max) 90–170 days<ref name=ecocrop /> and under optimal conditions the cycle is about 120–150 days<ref name=ecoport /> to pod maturity. Flowers appear 40–60 days<ref name=ecoport /> after planting. 30 days<ref name=ecoport /> after pollination the pod reaches maturity and during another 55 days<ref name=ecoport /> the seeds fully develop.
Every 30 days they are produced again.


The form and colour of BGN were all important factors to optimize the best extraction yield of phytochemicals. Overall, the hulls of the BGN were the optimum source of flavonoids and tannins: the brown and red hulls had the highest concentration of flavonoids compared to whole and dehulled, with the highest flavonoid concentration being rutin at 24.46 mg g−1 found in brown hulls and myricetin at 1.80 mg g−1 found in red hulls. Lastly, formulating products with higher concentration of BGN hulls could potentially result in a product with higher phytochemical content.<ref name="Harris3">{{cite journal |author=Taahir Harris |author2=Victoria Jideani |author3=MarilizeLe Roes-Hill |date=September 1, 2018 |title=Flavonoids and tannin composition of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) of Mpumalanga, South Africa |url=https://www.x-mol.com/paper/837047 |journal=Heliyon |volume=4 |issue=9 |page=e00833 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00833 |pmc=6168962 |pmid=30294697}}</ref>
===Generative reproduction===
Generative reproduction is for the Bambara groundnut autogamous<ref name=ecoport /> ([[Self-fertilization#Autogamy|self-fertilization]]) and cleistogamous<ref name=ecoport /> ([[Cleistogamy|self-pollinating]]).


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 15:05, 4 December 2022

Vigna subterranea
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Faboideae
Genus: Vigna
Species:
V. subterranea
Binomial name
Vigna subterranea
(L.) Verdc.
Synonyms[1]
  • Arachis africana Burm. f.
  • Glycine subterranea L.
  • Voandzeia subterranea (L.) Thouars
  • Voandzeia subterranea (L.) DC.

Vigna subterranea (common names: Bambara groundnut, Bambara nut,[2] Bambara bean,[3] Congo goober,[2] earth pea,[4] ground-bean,[2] or hog-peanut[2]) is a member of the family Fabaceae. Its name is derived from the Bambara tribe, who currently lives in Mali.[5] The plant originated in West Africa. As a food and source of income, the Bambara groundnut is considered to be the third most important leguminous crop in those African countries where it is grown, after peanut and cowpea. The crop is mainly cultivated, sold and processed by women, and is, thus, particularly valuable for female subsistence farmers. [6][7]

Bambara groundnut represents the third most important grain legume in semi-arid Africa.[8] It is resistant to high temperatures and is suitable for marginal soils where other leguminous crops cannot be grown.[9] It is a low-impact crop.[10] The entire plant is known for soil improvement[11] because of nitrogen fixation.

Vigna subterranea ripens its pods underground, much like the peanut (also called a groundnut). They can be eaten fresh or boiled after drying, and can be ground either fresh or dry to make puddings.

Origins and regions of cultivation

Freshly harvested Bambara nuts
Bambara plants in the field
Vigna subterranea - MHNT

The origin of the Bambara groundnut is West Africa[12] and the region of cultivation is Sub-Saharan Africa's warm tropics.[13] Bambara nut grows well anywhere groundnut (peanut) grows, and so is vastly present from Kwara state, throughout the northern parts of Nigeria and Northern Ghana.

Biology

Growth, development, physiology

Bambara groundnut is a herbaceous, intermediate, annual plant, with creeping stems at ground level. It is a small legume plant that grows to a height of 0.25–0.37m with compound leaves of three leaflets having stipules about 3 mm long.[14] The flowers have a tube calyx about 1 mm long and 5 lobes about 1 mm long as well as a whitish yellow corolla, 4–7 mm long.[15] The fruit is an indehiscent pod almost globose about 2.5 cm in diameter.[15] The plant generally looks like bunched leaves arising from branched stems, which form a crown on the soil surface.

Bambara is considered as a fast-growing crop. The growth cycle is between (min-max) 90–170 days[16] and under optimal conditions the cycle is about 120–150 days[17] to pod maturity. Flowers appear 40–60 days[17] after planting. 30 days[17] after pollination the pod reaches maturity and during another 55 days[17] the seeds fully develop. Every 30 days they are produced again.

Generative reproduction is for the Bambara groundnut autogamous[18] (self-fertilization) and cleistogamous[18] (self-pollinating). After self-fertilization, pale yellow flowers are borne on the freely growing branching stems; these stems then grow downwards into the soil, taking the developing seed within the pods, which makes breeding and development of new cultivars for the traits of interest difficult.[19] The seeds will form pods encasing seeds just below the soil. The pods are round, wrinkled and each contains one or two seeds that are round, smooth and very hard when dried.The seeds may be cream colored, brown, red, mottled or black eyed and their size is about 8.5–15 mm × 6.5–10 mm × 5.5–9 mm.[14]

Several factors are essential for promoting cross-pollination in Bambara and these include a proper nursery habitat, short day lengths (<12h), an average temperature of 26°C, which is necessary for optimum flowering and pod formation and a relative humidity of 90%.[14] The strict photoperiod requirement of Bambara also limits its productivity in countries further away from the equator. In some accessions, long days (>12h) negatively affect pod-setting, resulting in crop failure.[14]

The genus Vigna, which includes about 80 species, is found throughout the tropics.[15] There are considerable morphological differences between wild and domesticated types of Bambara groundnuts. Long runners are produced by wild Bambara groundnut, and the seeds are smaller (9–11 mm long) and more uniform in size. The pods are thin and do not wrinkle when drying. Domesticated versions are more compact, have fleshy pods that wrinkle as they dry, with longer, less slender, and more erect petioles, and larger seeds (11–15 mm long). Wild and domesticated types are sometimes distinguished as var. spontanea (Harms) Hepper (wild) and var. subterranea (cultivated).[15]

Biological nitrogen fixation

Like many other legumes, Bambara groundnut fixes atmospheric nitrogen through the process of biological nitrogen fixation. Its potential to be used as an alternative to chemical fertilizer in agriculture has been investigated for many years.[20] The process is also very important to improve soil fertility and to supply other non-leguminous crops with the nitrogen left in the soil after the legume is harvested. Bambara groundnut can fix 32 to 81 kg N /ha.[21]

Cultivation

Soil requirements

Optimal soils for Bambara groundnut production are sandy soils to prevent waterlogging. Well-drained soils make the harvest easier[22] and prevent rotting of the pods.[23] Stony areas should however be avoided to prevent damage of the pods.[23]

Optimal soil depth is between 50 and 100 cm,[24] with a light soil texture.[24] Soil fertility should be low[24] and soil pH is best suited between 5 and 6.5[24] and should not be lower than 4.3[24] or higher than 7.[24] Bambara groundnut is tolerant to salinity, but high sodium chloride concentration in the soil will result in yield losses.

Climate requirements

The production is best suited between a latitude of 20°- 30°,[25] i.e. the tropical wet and dry (Aw)[25] and the subtropical dry summer (Cs)[25] climate zones. Optimal temperature is between 19 °C[25] and 30 °C.[25] Temperatures below 16 °C[25] and above 38 °C[25] are not suited for the production of Bambara groundnut.

The Bambara groundnut is very drought-resistant.[26] The minimal annual rainfall requirement is about 300 mm[25] and optimal annual rainfall is between 750 mm[25] and 1400 mm[25] and should not exceed 3000 mm.[25] Bambara groundnut can tolerate heavy rainfall, but it will result in yield losses if they happen at harvest.[27]

Seedbed requirements and sowing

Before sowing, the seeds can be treated with pesticides to prevent insect and fungal attack, and being eaten by bush fowl (Numida meleagris). Priming the seeds with water by soaking them overnight and then drying them before sowing improves seedling emergence, vigour and yield.[28]

Sowing is usually performed manually by peasant farmers in tropical Africa, but it can also be done mechanically on industrial farms using modified soya bean planters. Manual sowing is generally done using a hoe or a cutlass to open the soil. One seed is placed in each hole which are then closed.[28]

Seedbed type doesn’t seem to affect yield or biomass production of Bambara groundnut.[29] The crop can thus be planted on flat terrain, although it is also planted in ridges.[30] Studies show that increased sowing density has a positive effect on production calculated on a per-area basis, but has a negative effect on per-plant yield. It is assumed that at higher sowing densities, increased competition between plants is the cause of lower pod and seed number per plant.[29]

Cropping system and fertilization

The cropping system is semi-permanent and the Bambara groundnut can be cultivated as single crop or as intercrop.[31] Best suited intercrops are sorghum, millet, maize, peanut, yams and cassava.[31] Bambara groundnut is mainly cultivated as intercrop, however the planting density varies between 6 and 29 plants per square meter.[32] For woodland savannas of Côte d'Ivoire, the highest yield is attainable with a plant density of 25[33] plants per square meter. Despite its suitability for intercropping systems due to its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen [34], a non-negligible proportion of farmers grow the Bambara groundnut in monoculture and report that its performance is better as a single crop.[35] Cultivation is mainly performed manually and is comparable to the production of peanut.[36]

The crop needs less mineral elements than groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea L.) and, therefore, has higher yields on low-fertility soils. Nevertheless, fertilization, especially with phosphate, can still improve the yield and growth development of the Bambara groudnut.[37] Depending on the soil and the country, the application of superphosphate ranging from 60 to 250 kg/ha has been shown to significantly improve the yield of this crop. A study in Cameroon also managed to use arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to improve the crop performance by biological fertilization. Since nitrogen is provided by the symbiotic Rhizobium bacteria, additional nitrogen fertilization is usually not necessary.[37] High nitrogen levels in the soil even result in fewer pods and lower seed production. However, nitrogen fertilization can be beneficial in some cases, notably when assimilation is poor and at early growth stages.

Harvest and postharvest treatment

The Bambara bean typically takes about 130-150 days to mature, but early or late harvests only marginally reduce the yield.[38] The pods, which grow belowground, are harvested manually by pulling out the whole crop and picking the pods by hand.[39] Then, they are usually dried in the sun for some days.[38] Post-harvest losses are reported to be on a low level.[39] However, insect pests can cause damage to stored grains, most importantly Bruchids.[40]

Interactions: Pests, diseases, symbionts

It is widely regarded as a pest and disease resistant crop. However, there is a lack of evidence to support this claim, with reports of fungal attacks by Rhizoctonia solani in Southern Thailand, and Cercospora canescens and Colletotrichum capsici in Nigeria, causing brown blotch disease. The crop is also susceptible to attack by cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus).[41]

Production

Importance

The annual production of Bambara groundnut is estimated to be 0.2 million tonnes from an area of 0.25 million hectares worldwide. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is the largest producer of Bambara groundnut, while a small quantity is produced in Southeast Asia (e.g., Thailand and Indonesia), the United States of America (USA), and Australia. Additionally, the crop is cultivated in Brazil, where it was putatively introduced in the 1600s with the slave trade.[42] West Africa is the main Bambara groundnut production region in SSA, where Burkina Faso, Niger, and Cameroon are the leading producers, contributing to 74% of global production.[43] However, it was reported by Ghanaean farmers to contribute neither to a large part of the subsistence food nor of the income.[44]

Worldwide production and yield

World production of Vigna subterranea increased from 29,800 tonnes in 1972[45] to 79,155 tonnes[45] in 2015.

Production Year 2013 (Source FAOSTAT)[46] Area Harvested (Ha) Yield (kg/ha) Production (tonnes)
 Mali 120,000 9,498 113,981
 Niger 68,000 4,412 30,000
 Burkina Faso 55,000 8,909 49,000
 Cameroon 43,392 8,444 36,639
 Democratic Republic of the Congo 4,828 750 14,000
World 315,392 7,724 243,620

The top six Bambara groundnut producing countries in Africa in 2018 include Burkina Faso, Niger, Cameroon, Mali, Togo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo with a total production of 0.06, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02, and 0.01 million tonnes, respectively.[47][48]

The yield level of Bambara groundnut in Africa varies from 0.6−1 t ha-1 , depending on variety and production conditions. However, unshelled mean yields of up to 3 t ha-1 were reported when cultivating some landraces in the transition agro-ecological zone in Nigeria . A low mean yield of 0.85 t ha-1 was reported in Ghana under good management practices close to yield levels of other legumes such as cowpeas (0.80 t ha-1) and pigeon peas (0.78 t ha-1).[47]

Nutrition

This nutrient-dense legume is sometimes termed a “complete food” due to its balanced macronutrient composition.[49] It is considered to be a neglected and underutilized food source in Benin.[50] The brown hull showed the highest concentrations of rutin and myricetin among flavonoids, while the red hull resulted in having with the highest concentrations of chlorogenic and ellagic acid among tannin compounds.[51]

Macronutrient content

Bambara groundnut has nutritive value ranging between 57.9% to 64% carbohydrate and 24.0% to 25.5% protein content.[52] In comparison, soybean (Glycine max) and chickpea (Cicer ariteneum) have 27% and 61% of carbohydrates.[53]

Micronutrient content

Micronutrient content of the Bambara groundnut.[54]
Micronutrient Content Comparison with chickpeas
Sodium (mg) 0.90 – 25.20 6.7 – 111.57
Potassium (mg) 308.40 – 2200.00 994. 5 – 1279.82
Phosphorus (mg) 173.97 – 563.00 241. 92 – 571.00
Calcium (mg) 0.39 – 76.01 81.70 – 222.65
Magnesium (mg) 124.99 – 555.10 3.21 – 191.00
Iron (mg) 11.38 – 149.50 4.49 – 53.43
Zinc (mg) 2.14 – 19.73 2.45 – 6.33

Anti-nutritional factors

The presence of anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) in the Vigna subterranea can reduce protein digestibility, affecting bioavailability of amino acids by up to 50%, as well as lowering digestibility and bioavailability of other nutrients. ANFs include enzyme inhibitors, flatulence factors, tannins, phytic acid and saponins. [55]ANFs can be removed or lowered by a variety of treatments:

  1. Cooking and thermal treatment of pulse seeds.[56]
  2. Soaking followed by cooking of Bambara groundnut seeds.[57]
  3. Processing methods such as soaking, germination, fermentation, and treatment with phytase have been successful in reducing phytic acid content of chickpeas, sorghum and millet.[58]
  4. Applications of pressure, heat, infrared radiation, dry extrusion and chemicals such as cysteine have been shown to reduce trypsin inhibitor activity in whole soybean.[59]

Culinary use

The seeds are used for food, beverages because of their high protein content[60] and for digestive system applications.[60] In West Africa, the nuts are eaten as a snack, roasted and salted, processed into cake, or as a meal, boiled similar to other beans.

The Bambara groundnut needs to be cooked for a relatively long time, which means that more fuel is needed than for cooking other legumes. The cooking time of fresh beans is 45-60 minutes, dry beans may even take 3-4 hours.[61] This presents an obstacle to a more widespread use of this crop. Moreover, if the bean is not cooked enough, it can cause bloating of the stomach, constipation and flatulence.[62]

Traditional culinary use of Bambara groundnut in Nigeria

In South Eastern Nigeria, particularly in Enugu, the dried Bambara beans are ground into a fine powder, then mixed with palm oil, water and pumpkin leaves and then poured into banana leaf wraps or one-litre cellophane bags before being boiled into a pudding to make Okpa, a common breakfast food. During the rainy season in many parts of central Nigeria, the fresh Bambara beans are cooked with their shells still on them, then eaten as a snack.

Potential use in probiotic beverage

Bambara groundnut milk can be fermented with lactic acid bacteria to make a probiotic beverage that not only increase the economic value of the nutritious legume but also help in addressing malnutrition.[63]

Use as livestock feed

The Bambara groundnut plays an important role in the diet and culture of populations. The leaves, rich in phosphorus, are used for livestock feed. Seeds are given to pigs and poultry while leafy stems are used as livestock fodder.[64]

Potential medicinal use

The Bambara groundnut is very interesting for potential medical use due to the Flavonoid content, which can be as high as 24.46 mg/g (concentration of rutin in brown hulls).[65] flavonoids have been reported to possess many useful properties, including anti-inflammatory activity, oestrogenic activity, enzyme inhibition, antimicrobial activity antiallergic activity, antioxidant activity, vascular activity and cytotoxic antitumor activity.[66] It is reported an antimicrobial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, Candida albicans (yeast) and Aspergillus niger (mold).[67]

Uses in traditional African medicine

The seeds and leaves of Bambara groundnut have been used for a long time in traditional medicine. Leaf preparations are used in Senegal to treat abscesses and infected wounds. The juice extracted from the leaf is applied to the eyes to treat epilepsy and the roots are sometimes used as an aphrodisiac. Crushed seeds, mixed with water, are administered to treat cataracts. The Ibo of Nigeria use the plant to treat venereal diseases. In Cameroon, Bambara groundnuts are used to fight amoebic dysentery, sore throat, headaches, stomach pain, joint pain and bone decalcification. It helps in digestion through its laxative properties. It stimulates milk production in breastfeeding women and is given to women who have just given birth to heal their wounds. Bambara groundnut seeds also contain kaempferol, an antioxidant polyphenol, which reduces the risk of many chronic diseases such as cancer.[68] These uses come from the cultural medicine, not evidence-based medicine.

Future Perspectives for the Crop

Breeding aims

There are a lot of genetic resources available for breeding since around 6145 germplasms of the Bambara groundnut have been collected and are stored ex situ (Khan et al. 2021).

The primary goal of Bambara improvement programs is to focus on seed yield and nutritional quality traits. There is a notable gap between the potential yield of 4 t/ha and the average yield of 0.85 t/ha reported for African countries. Thus, breeding should aim at improving the yield. Results of studies exhibited high protein content among the test genotypes. Similarly, high levels of essential fatty acids, thiamine, ribovin, and vitamin K were recorded. Moreover, scientists [69] examined the chemical properties of starches in Bambara groundnut. The results revealed that seed source/origin and crop management practices affected chemical composition. Food fortification, the use of artificial supplements, and food imports are among the strategies used to overcome the problem of malnutrition in Africa. The adoption of traditional plant breeding methods to enhance nutritional benefits of orphan food crops such as Bambara groundnut is an economic and affordable strategy to decrease malnutrition in Africa.[70]

The form and colour of BGN were all important factors to optimize the best extraction yield of phytochemicals. Overall, the hulls of the BGN were the optimum source of flavonoids and tannins: the brown and red hulls had the highest concentration of flavonoids compared to whole and dehulled, with the highest flavonoid concentration being rutin at 24.46 mg g−1 found in brown hulls and myricetin at 1.80 mg g−1 found in red hulls. Lastly, formulating products with higher concentration of BGN hulls could potentially result in a product with higher phytochemical content.[71]

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  69. ^ Azman Halimi, Razlin; Barkla, Bronwyn J.; Mayes, Sean; King, Graham J. (2019-04-01). "The potential of the underutilized pulse bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) for nutritional food security". Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 77: 47–59. doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2018.12.008. ISSN 0889-1575.
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  71. ^ Taahir Harris; Victoria Jideani; MarilizeLe Roes-Hill (September 1, 2018). "Flavonoids and tannin composition of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) of Mpumalanga, South Africa". Heliyon. 4 (9): e00833. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00833. PMC 6168962. PMID 30294697.

External links

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