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Islamophobia in France holds a particularly political significance since France has the largest proportion of Muslims in the Western world, primarily due to the migration from Maghrebi, West African, and Middle Eastern countries.^[1] The existence of discrimination against Muslims is reported by the media in the Muslim world.^[2]^[3] and by the perceived segregation and alienation of Muslims within the French community.^[4] The belief that there is an anti-Muslim climate in France is heavily criticised by some members of the French Muslim community who terms it an 'exaggeration'.^[5]

The word Islamophobie is itself subject of debate in France,^[6]^[7]^[8] since it is not clear whether it designates the fear of Islam or the racism against Muslims, the first being a legal opinion and belief while the second constitutes a crime according to French law.^[9] That is the reason why some authors urge to use racisme anti-musulman,^[10]^[11] literally "anti-Muslim racism", instead of Islamophobie, in order to differentiate between the distrust against Islam seen as a corpus of religious beliefs and the systematic hate and discrimination against Muslims. A survey by the Pew Research Center in Spring 2014 revealed that out of all Europeans, the French view Muslim minorities most favorably with 72% having a favorable opinion.^[12]^[13]^[14]

Some French people hold a belief that Islam is opposed to secularism and modernity.^[4]^[15] This fear is sometimes considered to originate in the country's experience with terrorism and in the belief that Muslims are unable to integrate with the French culture.^[16]

According to an opinion poll, 74% of Muslims in France believe that there is a conflict between living in devotion to one’s religion and living in the western secular society.^[16] Muslim individuals’ desire to integrate has been hindered by the reinforcement of cultural differences.^[17]

History

According to researcher Vincent Gassier "‘institutional Islamophobia’ or ‘State Islamophobia’ doesn’t really exist in France". In the past, Islam was seen by many as a liberal religion especially during 'les lumieres' (18th Century)^[15]. Anti-religious views (especially against Christianity) have developed through France’s historical tradition of segregation between state and church.^[15]

For a long time, conservative Muslims have been perceived as outsiders by the general French public, due to Islam’s community structure and as a threat to individuality.

Incidence

List of Islamophobic incidents § France

Statistics

The Observatory of Islamophobia confirmed a 34.6% decrease in Islamophobic attacks in France in 2017.^{[citation needed]}

According to the French Ministry of Interior, anti-Muslim attacks decreased from 121 in the year 2017 to 100 in the year 2018. These figures are based on complaints recorded in police stations.^[19]^[20] However, the French Council of the Muslim Faith said that the figures do not reflect the reality.^[21]^[20] The Collective against Islamophobia in France (CCIF) reported diametrically different figures based on the complaints made directly to their organizations. According to CCIF, Islamophobic attacks saw an increase from 446 in 2017 to 676 in 2018.

In 2019, the Ministry of Interior reported that anti-Muslim incidents increased by 54% from last year to 154 reported incidents.^[22]^[23] Islamophobic incidents saw a further jump of 53% with 235 incidents being reported.^[24]

Muslim women disproportionately face 81% of Islamophobic hate crimes.^[25]

Justice system

Fundamental rights for Muslims in France are the same than any other French citizen, making it hard to introduce religious laws for some Muslims.^[20] The French adherence to the concept of Laïcité is in contradiction to some Muslim behaviors.^[20] In turn, forces resisting it are unable to cope with the strength of the growth in this concept.^[20] Political leaders emphasis that this is a protection of social cohesion within France, however it affects the inclusion of some Muslims.^[20]

Legislation impacting some religious behaviors

The objective to prevent discrimination between French citizens and to remove religious signs (Christianity, Islam, Judaism) from public space is seen as an injustice by some Muslims.^[20]

On 11 April 2011, French Prime Minister François Fillon banned face veils from being worn in public spaces in France other than Mosques, at home or when travelling as a passenger in a car.^[26]

In October 2017, France introduced an Anti-Terrorism Bill which authorised power for officials to search homes, restrict movement and close places of worship.^[27] The concept behind this bill has been commended by a United Nations human rights expert who also, on the contrary, highlights the negative influence this may have over religious freedom.^[27]

In May 2019, French senate (dominated by legislators of the political right) voted in favor of a law to extend civil servant limitations to wear religion signs to helpers attending school trips.^[28] This was immediately opposed by the government on the grounds that it would be 'criminal' to stigmatise a fraction of the national community.^[28]

Anti-discriminatory legislation

Discriminatory acts against religious groups in France are denounced by legislature which promote equality. Some legislation and political groups which address the issue of discrimination against religious freedom in France include:

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
"Article X – No one may be disturbed for his opinions, even religious ones, provided that their manifestation does not trouble the public order established by the law".
The Preamble of the Constitution of 1946
"France shall form with the peoples of her Overseas Territories a Union based upon equality of rights and privileges, without distinction as to race or religion".
French Equal Opportunities and Anti-Discrimination Commission

In the media

French media portrayals of Islam often depict mainstream anti-Islamic views.^[29]

"...negative outlook on Islam is covered by the French media — something both logical, and worrying. Logical, because the media have to report on actual incidences, and so they have an incentive to adopt a discourse that echoes what potential readers, TV viewers, and listeners find appealing. Worrying, because this tendency legitimizes negative stereotypes about Islam."^[29]

Charlie Hebdo

In 2012 the French Charlie Hebdo newspaper published satirical cartoons depicting the Prophet Muhammad, following a long tradition of blasphemy against all religions.^[30] These cartoons received backlash from the Islamic community, who claimed that this was a disrespectful portrayal of a religious figure and thus a discriminatory act against Islam.^[30]

In 2015, following these publications, an Islamist terrorist killed 12 people and injured 11 in the Charlie Hebdo shooting.

In employment

There have been many reported cases of workplace Islamic discrimination against individuals. French law indicates two main guidelines regarding religion and employment.^[29] The "Protection of Individuals" indicates that one’s religious beliefs must not disturb the functioning of the workplace, including views regarding hygiene and safety requirements.^[29] The "Proper functioning of the firm" highlights that religion must never interfere with performance or one’s relationship with work.^[29] These French policies as seen as conflicting with some integrist views of Islam, claiming that it is dismissing their to practice the religion.^[29] For example, prayer breaks are disapproved and a request to not be on project with the opposite sex are denied - two practices followed by Muslims. Furthermore, Muslims can be forced to have a shared workspace with homosexuals and atheists, groups of people that are considered sinful by Islam.^[29]

Islamophobic groups and notions

Great Replacement

The conspiracy theory^[31] term "Great Replacement" was created by Renaud Camus in 2011 identifying immigration policies as the main issue affecting the shift in the demographics of France.^[32]

References

^ "5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2 November 2020.
^ "France sees wave of protests amid Islamophobia, police bill". Daily Sabah. 22 March 2021.
^ "What is Behind the Rise of Islamophobia in France?". 5 November 2020.
^ ^a ^b Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (11 April 2002). Muslims in the West. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195148053.003.0003. ISBN 9780195148053.
^ Valfort, Marie-Anne (2021). "Climat anti-musulmans en France : Chems-Eddine Hafiz dénonce "un sens de l'exagération"". Policy Paper. RTL.fr.
^ Berrod, Nicolas (8 November 2019). "Islamophobie» : cinq minutes pour comprendre la polémique autour d'un terme qui divise". Le Parisien. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
^ Pétreault, Clément (19 January 2015). "Islamophobie ou racisme anti-musulman ?". Le Point. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
^ "Islamophobie et racisme anti-musulman". MRAP. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
^ "Article 24 de la loi du 29 juillet 1881". Legifrance (in French). Retrieved 2 December 2020.
^ "Interview of Caroline Fourest in the journal l'Express". 24 October 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
^ Evano, Roger. "Islamophobie ou racisme anti-musulman, quel est l'enjeu ?". Blog médiapart. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
^ "France, Islam, terrorism and the challenges of integration: Research roundup". Archived from the original on 26 October 2015. Retrieved 30 October 2015. JournalistsResource.org, retrieved Jan. 12, 2015.
^ "EU Views of Roma, Muslims, Jews". 12 May 2014. Archived from the original on 9 January 2015. Retrieved 9 January 2015.
^ Niall McCarthy, Out of All Europeans, The French View Muslim Minorities Most Favorably [Infographic] Archived 2018-07-18 at the Wayback Machine Forbes Jan 8, 2015
^ ^a ^b ^c Gessier, Vincent (2010). "Islamophobia: a French Specificity in Europe?". Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge. 8.
^ ^a ^b Bowen, John R. (2009). "Recognising Islam in France after 9/11". Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 35 (3): 439–452. doi:10.1080/13691830802704608. ISSN 1369-183X. S2CID 143594213.
^ Giry, Stéphanie (2006). "France and Its Muslims". Foreign Affairs. 85 (5): 87–104. doi:10.2307/20032072. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20032072.
^ Henley, Jon (8 January 2015). "Muslims fear backlash after Charlie Hebdo deaths as Islamic sites attacked". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 16 May 2019.
^ "Bilan 2018 des actes racistes, antisémites, antimusulmans et antichrétiens". Gouvernement.fr (in French). 12 February 2019. Archived from the original on 12 July 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g European Islamophobia report. 2017. Bayraklı, Enes; Hafez, Farid. Ankara, Turkey. 2018. ISBN 9789752459618. OCLC 1032829227.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
^ "Baisse des actes anti-musulmans en France". Oumma (in French). 13 February 2019. Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
^ Ministère de l'Intérieur. "Statistiques 2019 des actes antireligieux, antisémites, racistes et xénophobes". Ministère de l'Intérieur. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
^ Ozcan, Yusuf (28 January 2020). "France: Islamophobic attacks up sharply last year". Anadolu Agency. Archived from the original on 31 January 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
^ AA, Daily Sabah with (29 January 2021). "Islamophobic attacks in France increase by 53% in 2020". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
^ https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session46/Documents/A_HRC_46_30.docx ^{[bare URL DOC/DOCX file]}
^ ^a ^b Weaver, Matthew (31 May 2018). "Burqa bans, headscarves and veils: a timeline of legislation in the west". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 10 May 2019.
^ ^a ^b "OHCHR | France: UN expert says new terrorism laws may undermine fundamental rights and freedoms". www.ohchr.org. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
^ ^a ^b "French Senate votes to ban mothers who wear headscarves from accompanying children on school trips". The Independent. 17 May 2019. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Valfort, Marie-Anne (2015). "Religious discrimination in access to employment: a reality". Policy Paper.
^ ^a ^b "Liberalism and secularism are meant to let religion flourish". The Independent. 9 January 2016. Retrieved 30 May 2019.
^ Charlton, Lauretta (6 August 2019). "What is the Great Replacement?". The New York Times.
^ "Islamophobia, racism and the 'Great Replacement'". DailySabah. 7 May 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2019.

[:42-1] "5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2 November 2020.

[2] "France sees wave of protests amid Islamophobia, police bill". Daily Sabah. 22 March 2021.

[3] "What is Behind the Rise of Islamophobia in France?". 5 November 2020.

[:0-4] Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (11 April 2002). Muslims in the West. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195148053.003.0003. ISBN 9780195148053.

[5] Valfort, Marie-Anne (2021). "Climat anti-musulmans en France : Chems-Eddine Hafiz dénonce "un sens de l'exagération"". Policy Paper. RTL.fr.

[6] Berrod, Nicolas (8 November 2019). "Islamophobie» : cinq minutes pour comprendre la polémique autour d'un terme qui divise". Le Parisien. Retrieved 12 December 2020.

[7] Pétreault, Clément (19 January 2015). "Islamophobie ou racisme anti-musulman ?". Le Point. Retrieved 12 December 2020.

[8] "Islamophobie et racisme anti-musulman". MRAP. Retrieved 12 December 2020.

[:loi-9] "Article 24 de la loi du 29 juillet 1881". Legifrance (in French). Retrieved 2 December 2020.

[:racisme-10] "Interview of Caroline Fourest in the journal l'Express". 24 October 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2020.

[11] Evano, Roger. "Islamophobie ou racisme anti-musulman, quel est l'enjeu ?". Blog médiapart. Retrieved 12 December 2020.

[jr.org-12] "France, Islam, terrorism and the challenges of integration: Research roundup". Archived from the original on 26 October 2015. Retrieved 30 October 2015. JournalistsResource.org, retrieved Jan. 12, 2015.

[13] "EU Views of Roma, Muslims, Jews". 12 May 2014. Archived from the original on 9 January 2015. Retrieved 9 January 2015.

[14] Niall McCarthy, Out of All Europeans, The French View Muslim Minorities Most Favorably [Infographic] Archived 2018-07-18 at the Wayback Machine Forbes Jan 8, 2015

[:2-15] Gessier, Vincent (2010). "Islamophobia: a French Specificity in Europe?". Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge. 8.

[:9-16] Bowen, John R. (2009). "Recognising Islam in France after 9/11". Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 35 (3): 439–452. doi:10.1080/13691830802704608. ISSN 1369-183X. S2CID 143594213.

[:11-17] Giry, Stéphanie (2006). "France and Its Muslims". Foreign Affairs. 85 (5): 87–104. doi:10.2307/20032072. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20032072.

[18] Henley, Jon (8 January 2015). "Muslims fear backlash after Charlie Hebdo deaths as Islamic sites attacked". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 16 May 2019.

[19] "Bilan 2018 des actes racistes, antisémites, antimusulmans et antichrétiens". Gouvernement.fr (in French). 12 February 2019. Archived from the original on 12 July 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2021.

[:1-20] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g European Islamophobia report. 2017. Bayraklı, Enes; Hafez, Farid. Ankara, Turkey. 2018. ISBN 9789752459618. OCLC 1032829227.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)

[21] "Baisse des actes anti-musulmans en France". Oumma (in French). 13 February 2019. Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2021.

[stat_fr-22] Ministère de l'Intérieur. "Statistiques 2019 des actes antireligieux, antisémites, racistes et xénophobes". Ministère de l'Intérieur. Retrieved 22 January 2021.

[23] Ozcan, Yusuf (28 January 2020). "France: Islamophobic attacks up sharply last year". Anadolu Agency. Archived from the original on 31 January 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2021.

[24] AA, Daily Sabah with (29 January 2021). "Islamophobic attacks in France increase by 53% in 2020". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 30 January 2021.

[25] ttps://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session46/Documents/A_HRC_46_30.docx ^{[bare URL DOC/DOCX file]}

[:6-26] Weaver, Matthew (31 May 2018). "Burqa bans, headscarves and veils: a timeline of legislation in the west". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 10 May 2019.

[:3-27] "OHCHR | France: UN expert says new terrorism laws may undermine fundamental rights and freedoms". www.ohchr.org. Retrieved 9 May 2019.

[:13-28] "French Senate votes to ban mothers who wear headscarves from accompanying children on school trips". The Independent. 17 May 2019. Retrieved 25 May 2019.

[:10-29] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Valfort, Marie-Anne (2015). "Religious discrimination in access to employment: a reality". Policy Paper.

[:14-30] "Liberalism and secularism are meant to let religion flourish". The Independent. 9 January 2016. Retrieved 30 May 2019.

[31] Charlton, Lauretta (6 August 2019). "What is the Great Replacement?". The New York Times.

[:4-32] "Islamophobia, racism and the 'Great Replacement'". DailySabah. 7 May 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2019.

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@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
 {{Islamophobia}}
-'''Islamophobia in France''' holds a particularly political significance since France has the largest proportion of Muslims in the Western world, primarily due to the migration from Maghrebi, West African, and Middle Eastern countries.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|title=5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/|access-date=2020-11-02|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US}}</ref> The existence of discrimination against Muslims is reported by the media in the Muslim world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/world/europe/france-sees-wave-of-protests-amid-islamophobia-police-bill|title = France sees wave of protests amid Islamophobia, police bill|website = [[Daily Sabah]]|date = 22 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fairobserver.com/region/europe/ali-demirdas-islamophobia-assimilation-muslims-emmanuel-macron-far-right-election-2022-france-news-25111/|title = What is Behind the Rise of Islamophobia in France?|date = 5 November 2020}}</ref> and by the perceived [[Religious segregation|segregation]] and [[Social alienation|alienation]] of [[Religion in France#Demographics|Muslims]] within the French community.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195148053.001.0001/acprof-9780195148053|title=Muslims in the West|last=Haddad|first=Yvonne Yazbeck|date=2002-04-11|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195148053|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195148053.003.0003}}</ref> This belief that there is an anti-Muslim climate in France is heavily criticised by some members of the French Muslim community who terms it an 'exaggeration'.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Valfort |first1=Marie-Anne |title=Climat anti-musulmans en France : Chems-Eddine Hafiz dénonce "un sens de l'exagération". |journal=Policy Paper. RTL.fr |date=2021 |url= https://www.rtl.fr/actu/debats-societe/climat-anti-musulmans-en-france-chems-eddine-hafiz-denonce-un-sens-de-l-exageration-7900019211 }}</ref>
+'''Islamophobia in France''' holds a particularly political significance since France has the largest proportion of Muslims in the Western world, primarily due to the migration from Maghrebi, West African, and Middle Eastern countries.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|title=5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/|access-date=2020-11-02|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US}}</ref> The existence of discrimination against Muslims is reported by the media in the Muslim world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/world/europe/france-sees-wave-of-protests-amid-islamophobia-police-bill|title = France sees wave of protests amid Islamophobia, police bill|website = [[Daily Sabah]]|date = 22 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fairobserver.com/region/europe/ali-demirdas-islamophobia-assimilation-muslims-emmanuel-macron-far-right-election-2022-france-news-25111/|title = What is Behind the Rise of Islamophobia in France?|date = 5 November 2020}}</ref> and by the perceived [[Religious segregation|segregation]] and [[Social alienation|alienation]] of [[Religion in France#Demographics|Muslims]] within the French community.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195148053.001.0001/acprof-9780195148053|title=Muslims in the West|last=Haddad|first=Yvonne Yazbeck|date=2002-04-11|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195148053|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195148053.003.0003}}</ref> The belief that there is an anti-Muslim climate in France is heavily criticised by some members of the French Muslim community who terms it an 'exaggeration'.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Valfort |first1=Marie-Anne |title=Climat anti-musulmans en France : Chems-Eddine Hafiz dénonce "un sens de l'exagération". |journal=Policy Paper. RTL.fr |date=2021 |url= https://www.rtl.fr/actu/debats-societe/climat-anti-musulmans-en-france-chems-eddine-hafiz-denonce-un-sens-de-l-exageration-7900019211 }}</ref>
 The word ''Islamophobie'' is itself subject of debate in France,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Berrod |first1=Nicolas |title=Islamophobie» : cinq minutes pour comprendre la polémique autour d'un terme qui divise |url=https://www.leparisien.fr/societe/islamophobie-cinq-minutes-pour-comprendre-la-polemique-autour-d-un-terme-qui-divise-08-11-2019-8189037.php |website=Le Parisien |date=8 November 2019 |access-date=12 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Pétreault |first1=Clément |title=Islamophobie ou racisme anti-musulman ? |url=https://www.lepoint.fr/societe/islamophobie-ou-racisme-anti-musulman-19-01-2015-1897733_23.php |website=Le Point |date=19 January 2015 |access-date=12 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Islamophobie et racisme anti-musulman |url=https://mrap.fr/islamophobie-et-racisme-anti-musulman?debut_articles_rubrique=%40556 |website=MRAP |access-date=12 December 2020}}</ref> since it is not clear whether it designates the fear of Islam or the racism against Muslims, the first being a legal opinion and belief while the second constitutes a crime according to French law.<ref name=":loi">{{Cite web|title= Article 24 de la loi du 29 juillet 1881 |url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/loda/article_lc/LEGIARTI000038313302/|access-date=2020-12-02|website=Legifrance|language=fr-FR}}</ref> That is the reason why some authors urge to use ''racisme anti-musulman'',<ref name=":racisme">{{Cite web|title=Interview of Caroline Fourest in the journal ''l'Express'' |url=https://www.lexpress.fr/actualite/idees-et-debats/caroline-fourest-nous-sommes-l-un-des-rares-pays-a-regarder-le-fanatisme-dans-les-yeux_2136903.html|date=2020-10-24|access-date=2020-12-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Evano |first1=Roger |title=Islamophobie ou racisme anti-musulman, quel est l'enjeu ? |url=https://blogs.mediapart.fr/roger-evano/blog/211219/islamophobie-ou-racisme-anti-musulman-quel-est-lenjeu |website=Blog médiapart |access-date=12 December 2020}}</ref> literally "anti-Muslim racism", instead of ''Islamophobie'', in order to differentiate between the distrust against Islam seen as a corpus of religious beliefs and the systematic hate and discrimination against Muslims. A survey by the Pew Research Center in Spring 2014 revealed that out of all Europeans, the French view Muslim minorities most favorably with 72% having a favorable opinion.<ref name="jr.org">{{cite news | url=http://journalistsresource.org/studies/international/conflicts/france-muslims-terrorism-and-challenges-of-integration-research-roundup | title=France, Islam, terrorism and the challenges of integration: Research roundup | access-date=2015-10-30 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026195633/http://journalistsresource.org/studies/international/conflicts/france-muslims-terrorism-and-challenges-of-integration-research-roundup | archive-date=2015-10-26 | url-status=dead }} JournalistsResource.org, retrieved Jan. 12, 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2014/05/12/chapter-4-views-of-roma-muslims-jews/#mixed-views-of-muslim-minorities |title=EU Views of Roma, Muslims, Jews |date=12 May 2014 |access-date=2015-01-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109114144/http://www.pewglobal.org/2014/05/12/chapter-4-views-of-roma-muslims-jews/#mixed-views-of-muslim-minorities |archive-date=2015-01-09 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Niall McCarthy, [https://www.forbes.com/sites/niallmccarthy/2015/01/08/out-of-all-europeans-the-french-view-muslim-minorities-most-favorably-infographic/?linkId=11618733 ''Out of All Europeans, The French View Muslim Minorities Most Favorably &#91;Infographic&#93;''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718175234/https://www.forbes.com/sites/niallmccarthy/2015/01/08/out-of-all-europeans-the-french-view-muslim-minorities-most-favorably-infographic/?linkId=11618733 |date=2018-07-18 }} Forbes Jan 8, 2015</ref>
@@ Line 12: / Line 12: @@
 == History ==
-According to researcher Vincent Gassier "‘institutional Islamophobia’ or ‘State Islamophobia’ doesn’t really exist in France". But French society has been infused with Islamophobic attitudes recently. Islam was seen by many as a liberal religion especially during 'les lumieres' (18th Century)<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Gessier|first=Vincent|date=2010|title=Islamophobia: a French Specificity in Europe?|url=https://scholarworks.umb.edu/humanarchitecture/vol8/iss2/6|journal=Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge|volume=8}}</ref> Anti-religious (especially against Christianity) views have developed through France’s historical tradition of segregation between state and church.<ref name=":2" />
+According to researcher Vincent Gassier "‘institutional Islamophobia’ or ‘State Islamophobia’ doesn’t really exist in France". In the past, Islam was seen by many as a liberal religion especially during 'les lumieres' (18th Century)<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Gessier|first=Vincent|date=2010|title=Islamophobia: a French Specificity in Europe?|url=https://scholarworks.umb.edu/humanarchitecture/vol8/iss2/6|journal=Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge|volume=8}}</ref>. Anti-religious views (especially against Christianity) have developed through France’s historical tradition of segregation between state and church.<ref name=":2" />
-For a long time, conservative Muslims have been perceived as outsiders by the general French public, due to Islam’s community structure, a threat to individuality - a strong French value shaped by [[Laïcité]].<ref>{{Cite book|date=2007|editor-last=Bertossi|editor-first=Christophe|title=European Anti-Discrimination and the Politics of Citizenship|doi=10.1057/9780230627314|isbn=978-1-349-54412-7}}</ref>
+For a long time, conservative Muslims have been perceived as outsiders by the general French public, due to Islam’s community structure and as a threat to individuality.
 == Incidence ==
@@ Line 39: / Line 39: @@
 In October 2017, France introduced an Anti-Terrorism Bill which authorised power for officials to search homes, restrict movement and close places of worship.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23130&LangID=E|title=OHCHR {{!}} France: UN expert says new terrorism laws may undermine fundamental rights and freedoms|website=www.ohchr.org|access-date=2019-05-09}}</ref> The concept behind this bill has been commended by a [[United Nations]] human rights expert who also, on the contrary, highlights the negative influence this may have over [[Freedom of religion|religious freedom]].<ref name=":3" />
-In May 2019, French senate (dominated by legislators of the political right) voted a law to extend civil servant limitations to wear religion signs to helpers attending school trips.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/france-burqa-ban-niqab-school-senate-vote-islam-children-republicans-a8918741.html|title=French Senate votes to ban mothers who wear headscarves from accompanying children on school trips|date=2019-05-17|website=The Independent|access-date=2019-05-25}}</ref> This was immediately opposed by the government on the grounds that it would be 'criminal' to stigmatise a fraction of the national community.<ref name=":13" />
+In May 2019, French senate (dominated by legislators of the political right) voted in favor of a law to extend civil servant limitations to wear religion signs to helpers attending school trips.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/france-burqa-ban-niqab-school-senate-vote-islam-children-republicans-a8918741.html|title=French Senate votes to ban mothers who wear headscarves from accompanying children on school trips|date=2019-05-17|website=The Independent|access-date=2019-05-25}}</ref> This was immediately opposed by the government on the grounds that it would be 'criminal' to stigmatise a fraction of the national community.<ref name=":13" />
 === Anti-discriminatory legislation ===