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'''Kōji''' (ニホンコウジカビ, 日本麹黴, ‘nihon kōji kabi’) refers to various [[mold]]s of the genus ''[[Aspergillus|Aspergillus sp.]]'', which are traditionally used in East Asian cuisine for the [[fermentation]] of [[food]]. In Japanese, kōji refers to both the ''Aspergillus'' starter culture and mixtures of ''Aspergillus'' with wheat and soybean meal. It can be fried and eaten directly or processed to a [[sauce]].<ref name="Noma">[[René Redzepi]], [[David Zilber]]: ''The Noma Handbook Fermentation - How to make Koji, Kombucha, Shoyu, Miso, Vinegar, Garum, lacto-fermented and black fruits and vegetables and cook with them.'' 5th edition, A. Kunstmann, 2019. ISBN 978-3-95614-293-2.</ref>
'''Kōji''' (ニホンコウジカビ, 日本麹黴, ‘nihon kōji kabi’) refers to various [[mold]]s of the genus ''[[Aspergillus|Aspergillus sp.]]'', which are traditionally used in East Asian cuisine for the [[fermentation]] of [[food]]. In Japanese, kōji refers to both the ''Aspergillus'' starter culture and mixtures of ''Aspergillus'' with wheat and soybean meal. It can be fried and eaten directly or processed to a [[sauce]].<ref name="Noma">[[René Redzepi]], [[David Zilber]]: ''The Noma Handbook Fermentation - How to make Koji, Kombucha, Shoyu, Miso, Vinegar, Garum, lacto-fermented and black fruits and vegetables and cook with them.'' 5th edition, A. Kunstmann, 2019. {{ISBN|978-3-95614-293-2}}.</ref>


== Characteristics ==
== Characteristics ==
[[File:Four 3-day old Aspergillus colonies on a Petri dish.png|thumb|Four Aspergillus species in a Petri dish. The bottom two are strains of ''[[A. oryzae]]'']] Various types of kōji are used, including yellow, black, and white.<ref name=“Hong”>S. B. Hong, O. Yamada, R. A. Samson: ''Taxonomic re-evaluation of black koji molds.'' In: ''[[Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology]]''. Volume 98, Number 2, January 2014, p. 555–561, {{DOI|10.1007/s00253-013-5332-9}}, PMID 24281756 (Review).</ref><ref name="Noma" /> The kōji is stored for two to three days at 30 °C under high humidity to allow ''A. oryzae'' to grow.<ref name=“Ito” /> In this process, the [[starch]] from cereals such as [[wheat]], [[buckwheat]] or [[barley]] as well as from [[sweet potato]] is split into [[glucose]], creating a sweet taste. Due to the [[amino acids]] [[glutamic acid]] and to a lesser extent also [[aspartic acid]] split off from the [[proteins]] during fermentation, a strong [[umami]] taste is created on the human tongue when consumed.<ref name=“Diez-Simon”>C. Diez-Simon, C. Eichelsheim, R. Mumm, R. D. Hall: ''Chemical and Sensory Characteristics of Soy Sauce: A Review.'' In: ''Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.'' Volume 68, Number 42, October 2020, p. 11612–11630, {{DOI|10.1021/acs.jafc.0c04274}}, PMID 32880168, {{PMC|7581291}}. (English)</ref><ref name=“Lioe”>H. N. Lioe, J. Selamat, M. Yasuda: ''Soy sauce and its umami taste: a link from the past to current situation.'' In: ''Journal of food science.'' Volume 75, Number 3, April 2010, p. R71–R76, {{DOI|10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01529.x}}, PMID 20492309.</ref> Dried kōji-[[spores]] can be stored and transported light-protected at room temperature.
[[File:Four 3-day old Aspergillus colonies on a Petri dish.png|thumb|Four Aspergillus species in a Petri dish. The bottom two are strains of ''[[A. oryzae]]'']] Various types of kōji are used, including yellow, black, and white.<ref name="Hong">S. B. Hong, O. Yamada, R. A. Samson: ''Taxonomic re-evaluation of black koji molds.'' In: ''[[Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology]]''. Volume 98, Number 2, January 2014, p. 555–561, {{DOI|10.1007/s00253-013-5332-9}}, PMID 24281756 (Review).</ref><ref name="Noma" /> The kōji is stored for two to three days at 30&nbsp;°C under high humidity to allow ''A. oryzae'' to grow.<ref name="Ito" /> In this process, the [[starch]] from cereals such as [[wheat]], [[buckwheat]] or [[barley]] as well as from [[sweet potato]] is split into [[glucose]], creating a sweet taste. Due to the [[amino acids]] [[glutamic acid]] and to a lesser extent also [[aspartic acid]] split off from the [[proteins]] during fermentation, a strong [[umami]] taste is created on the human tongue when consumed.<ref name="Diez-Simon">C. Diez-Simon, C. Eichelsheim, R. Mumm, R. D. Hall: ''Chemical and Sensory Characteristics of Soy Sauce: A Review.'' In: ''Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.'' Volume 68, Number 42, October 2020, p. 11612–11630, {{DOI|10.1021/acs.jafc.0c04274}}, PMID 32880168, {{PMC|7581291}}. (English)</ref><ref name="Lioe">H. N. Lioe, J. Selamat, M. Yasuda: ''Soy sauce and its umami taste: a link from the past to current situation.'' In: ''Journal of food science.'' Volume 75, Number 3, April 2010, p. R71–R76, {{DOI|10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01529.x}}, PMID 20492309.</ref> Dried kōji-[[spores]] can be stored and transported light-protected at room temperature.


=== Yellow kōji ===
=== Yellow kōji ===
[[File:Shoyukoji.jpg|thumb|''[[Aspergillus sojae]]'' on soybeans]]
[[File:Shoyukoji.jpg|thumb|''[[Aspergillus sojae]]'' on soybeans]]
Yellow kōji is used, among other things, for the production of [[soy sauce]],<ref name=“Ito” /><ref name=“Diez-Simon” /> [[miso]],<ref name=“PMID34056716”>J. G. Allwood, L. T. Wakeling, D. C. Bean: ''Fermentation and the microbial community of Japanese koji and miso: A review.'' In: ''Journal of food science.'' Volume 86, Number 6, June 2021, p. 2194–2207, {{DOI|10.1111/1750-3841.15773}}, PMID 34056716.</ref><ref name=“PMID34356958”>K. I. Kusumoto, Y. Yamagata, R. Tazawa, M. Kitagawa, T. Kato, K. Isobe, Y. Kashiwagi: ''Japanese Traditional and Making.'' In: ''Journal of fungi.'' Volume 7, Number 7, July 2021, {{DOI|10.3390/jof7070579}}, PMID 34356958, {{PMC|8307815}}.</ref> [[sake]],<ref name=“PMID31159661”>K. Gomi: ''Regulatory mechanisms for amylolytic gene expression in the koji mold.'' In: ''Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry.'' Volume 83, Number 8, August 2019, p. 1385–1401, {{DOI|10.1080/09168451.2019.1625265}}, PMID 31159661.</ref> [[tsukemono]], [[jiang]], [[makgeolli]], [[meju]], [[tapai]], kōji-[[amazake]], [[rice vinegar]],<ref name=“Shih”>Rich Shih, Jeremy Umansky: ''Koji Alchemy'', Chelsea Green 2020. ISBN 978-1-6035-8868-3. p. 13–19.</ref> [[mirin]], [[shio koji]]<ref name=“Murooka”>Yoshikatsu Murooka: ''Japanese Food for Health and Longevity - The Science behind a Great Culinary Tradition.'' Cambridge Scholars 2020. ISBN 978-1-5275-5043-8. p. 45–65.</ref> and [[natto]]. Typically, for the production of soy sauce (''shoyu''), [[soybeans]] and sometimes also wheat are swollen in water, [[steamed]], and possibly mixed with wheat bran roasted at 160–180 °C and ground. The enrichment with kōji creates a moist [[mashing|mash]].<ref name=“Ito”>K. Ito, A. Matsuyama: ''Koji Molds for Japanese Soy Sauce Brewing: Characteristics and Key Enzymes.'' In: ''Journal of fungi.'' Volume 7, Number 8, August 2021, {{DOI|10.3390/jof7080658}}, PMID 34436196, {{PMC|8399179}}. (English)</ref>
Yellow kōji is used, among other things, for the production of [[soy sauce]],<ref name="Ito" /><ref name="Diez-Simon" /> [[miso]],<ref name="PMID34056716">J. G. Allwood, L. T. Wakeling, D. C. Bean: ''Fermentation and the microbial community of Japanese koji and miso: A review.'' In: ''Journal of food science.'' Volume 86, Number 6, June 2021, p. 2194–2207, {{DOI|10.1111/1750-3841.15773}}, PMID 34056716.</ref><ref name="PMID34356958">K. I. Kusumoto, Y. Yamagata, R. Tazawa, M. Kitagawa, T. Kato, K. Isobe, Y. Kashiwagi: ''Japanese Traditional and Making.'' In: ''Journal of fungi.'' Volume 7, Number 7, July 2021, {{DOI|10.3390/jof7070579}}, PMID 34356958, {{PMC|8307815}}.</ref> [[sake]],<ref name="PMID31159661">K. Gomi: ''Regulatory mechanisms for amylolytic gene expression in the koji mold.'' In: ''Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry.'' Volume 83, Number 8, August 2019, p. 1385–1401, {{DOI|10.1080/09168451.2019.1625265}}, PMID 31159661.</ref> [[tsukemono]], [[jiang]], [[makgeolli]], [[meju]], [[tapai]], kōji-[[amazake]], [[rice vinegar]],<ref name="Shih">Rich Shih, Jeremy Umansky: ''Koji Alchemy'', Chelsea Green 2020. {{ISBN|978-1-6035-8868-3}}. p. 13–19.</ref> [[mirin]], [[shio koji]]<ref name="Murooka">Yoshikatsu Murooka: ''Japanese Food for Health and Longevity - The Science behind a Great Culinary Tradition.'' Cambridge Scholars 2020. {{ISBN|978-1-5275-5043-8}}. p. 45–65.</ref> and [[natto]]. Typically, for the production of soy sauce (''shoyu''), [[soybeans]] and sometimes also wheat are swollen in water, [[steamed]], and possibly mixed with wheat bran roasted at 160–180&nbsp;°C and ground. The enrichment with kōji creates a moist [[mashing|mash]].<ref name="Ito">K. Ito, A. Matsuyama: ''Koji Molds for Japanese Soy Sauce Brewing: Characteristics and Key Enzymes.'' In: ''Journal of fungi.'' Volume 7, Number 8, August 2021, {{DOI|10.3390/jof7080658}}, PMID 34436196, {{PMC|8399179}}. (English)</ref>


There are three Aspergillus species that are used as yellow kōji:
There are three Aspergillus species that are used as yellow kōji:


* ''[[Aspergillus flavus var. oryzae]]''<ref name=“DOI10.1186/s40643-021-00408-z”>Ghoson M. Daba, Faten A. Mostafa, Waill A. Elkhateeb: ''The ancient koji mold (Aspergillus oryzae) as a modern biotechnological tool.'' In: ''Bioresources and bioprocessing.'' 2021, Volume 8, Number 1 {{DOI|10.1186/s40643-021-00408-z}}, PMID 38650252, {{PMC|10992763}}.</ref> (キコウジキン / 黄麹菌 ‘ki kōji-kin’). The growth range of this species includes [[pH]] values from below 2 to above 8, a temperature optimum of 32 – 36 °C, a temperature minimum of 7 – 9 °C and a temperature maximum of 45 – 47 °C.<ref name=“Weidenbörner”>{{cite book|author=Martin Weidenbörner|title=Lexicon of Food Mycology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Mef3BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA19|year=2013|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-642-57058-2|pages=19}}</ref> The [[colony (biology)|colony color]] is initially yellow-green, later more or less brown.<ref name=“Weidenbörner” />
* ''[[Aspergillus flavus var. oryzae]]''<ref name="“{{DOI|10.1186/s40643-021-00408-z}}”">Ghoson M. Daba, Faten A. Mostafa, Waill A. Elkhateeb: ''The ancient koji mold (Aspergillus oryzae) as a modern biotechnological tool.'' In: ''Bioresources and bioprocessing.'' 2021, Volume 8, Number 1 {{DOI|10.1186/s40643-021-00408-z}}, PMID 38650252, {{PMC|10992763}}.</ref> (キコウジキン / 黄麹菌 ‘ki kōji-kin’). The growth range of this species includes [[pH]] values from below 2 to above 8, a temperature optimum of 32 – 36&nbsp;°C, a temperature minimum of 7 – 9&nbsp;°C and a temperature maximum of 45 – 47&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Weidenbörner">{{cite book|author=Martin Weidenbörner|title=Lexicon of Food Mycology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Mef3BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA19|year=2013|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-642-57058-2|pages=19}}</ref> The [[colony (biology)|colony color]] is initially yellow-green, later more or less brown.<ref name="Weidenbörner" />
* ''[[Aspergillus sojae]]''<ref>Keith A. Powell, Annabel Renwick, John F. Peberdy: ''The Genus Aspergillus: From Taxonomy and Genetics to Industrial Application.'' Springer, 2013, ISBN 978-1-4899-0981-7, p. 161.</ref><ref>William Shurtleff, Akiko Aoyagi: ''History of Koji – Grains And/or Soybeans Enrobed with a Mold Culture (300 BCE To 2012).'' Soyinfo Center, 2012, ISBN 978-1-928914-45-7.</ref> (醤油麹菌 ‘shōyu-kōji-kin’)
* ''[[Aspergillus sojae]]''<ref>Keith A. Powell, Annabel Renwick, John F. Peberdy: ''The Genus Aspergillus: From Taxonomy and Genetics to Industrial Application.'' Springer, 2013, {{ISBN|978-1-4899-0981-7}}, p. 161.</ref><ref>William Shurtleff, Akiko Aoyagi: ''History of Koji – Grains And/or Soybeans Enrobed with a Mold Culture (300 BCE To 2012).'' Soyinfo Center, 2012, {{ISBN|978-1-928914-45-7}}.</ref> (醤油麹菌 ‘shōyu-kōji-kin’)
* ''[[Aspergillus tamarii]]''<ref name=“Ito” /><ref name=“Diez-Simon” />
* ''[[Aspergillus tamarii]]''<ref name="Ito" /><ref name="Diez-Simon" />


''A. oryzae'' has three α-[[amylase]] genes, which allows it to break down starch relatively quickly into glucose.<ref name=“Ito” /> In contrast, ''A. sojae'' has only one α-amylase gene under a weak [[promoter (genetics)|promoter]] and the [[CAAT box]] has a gene expression attenuating mutation (CCAAA instead of CCAAT), but has a higher [[enzyme activity]] of [[endopolygalacturonase]] and [[glutaminase]].<ref name=“Ito” /> A too rapid release of glucose from starch at the beginning of fermentation inhibits the growth of the microorganisms in the maturation phase.<ref name=“Ito” /> For the breakdown of proteins to amino acids, ‘‘A. oryzae’’ strain RIB40 has 65 [[endopeptidase]] genes and 69 [[exopeptidase]] genes, and ‘‘A. sojae’’ strain SMF134 has 83 endopeptidase genes and 67 exopeptidase genes.<ref name=“Ito” /> Various [[mutant]]s of ‘‘A. oryzae’’ with altered properties were generated by [[ionizing radiation|irradiation]]<ref name=“Ito” /> or by the [[CRISPR/Cas|CRISPR/CAS method]].<ref name=“Maruyama”>J. I. Maruyama: ''Genome Editing Technology and Its Application Potentials in the Industrial Filamentous Fungus.'' In: ''Journal of fungi.'' Volume 7, Number 8, August 2021, {{DOI|10.3390/jof7080638}}, PMID 34436177, {{PMC|8399504}}. (English)</ref><ref name=“Jin”>F. J. Jin, S. Hu, B. T. Wang, L. Jin: ''Advances in Genetic Engineering Technology and Its Application in the Industrial Fungus.'' In: ''Frontiers in Microbiology.'' Volume 12, 2021, p. 644404, {{DOI|10.3389/fmicb.2021.644404}}, PMID 33708187, {{PMC|7940364}}.</ref>
''A. oryzae'' has three α-[[amylase]] genes, which allows it to break down starch relatively quickly into glucose.<ref name="Ito" /> In contrast, ''A. sojae'' has only one α-amylase gene under a weak [[promoter (genetics)|promoter]] and the [[CAAT box]] has a gene expression attenuating mutation (CCAAA instead of CCAAT), but has a higher [[enzyme activity]] of [[endopolygalacturonase]] and [[glutaminase]].<ref name="Ito" /> A too rapid release of glucose from starch at the beginning of fermentation inhibits the growth of the microorganisms in the maturation phase.<ref name="Ito" /> For the breakdown of proteins to amino acids, ‘‘A. oryzae’’ strain RIB40 has 65 [[endopeptidase]] genes and 69 [[exopeptidase]] genes, and ‘‘A. sojae’’ strain SMF134 has 83 endopeptidase genes and 67 exopeptidase genes.<ref name="Ito" /> Various [[mutant]]s of ‘‘A. oryzae’’ with altered properties were generated by [[ionizing radiation|irradiation]]<ref name="Ito" /> or by the [[CRISPR/Cas|CRISPR/CAS method]].<ref name="Maruyama">J. I. Maruyama: ''Genome Editing Technology and Its Application Potentials in the Industrial Filamentous Fungus.'' In: ''Journal of fungi.'' Volume 7, Number 8, August 2021, {{DOI|10.3390/jof7080638}}, PMID 34436177, {{PMC|8399504}}. (English)</ref><ref name="Jin">F. J. Jin, S. Hu, B. T. Wang, L. Jin: ''Advances in Genetic Engineering Technology and Its Application in the Industrial Fungus.'' In: ''Frontiers in Microbiology.'' Volume 12, 2021, p. 644404, {{DOI|10.3389/fmicb.2021.644404}}, PMID 33708187, {{PMC|7940364}}.</ref>


=== Black & white kōji ===
=== Black & white kōji ===
Black kōji produces [[citric acid]] during fermentation, which inhibits the growth of unwanted microorganisms.<ref name=“Hong” /> It is used for the production of [[Shochu]] and [[Awamori]].<ref name=“Hong” /><ref name=“Murooka” />
Black kōji produces [[citric acid]] during fermentation, which inhibits the growth of unwanted microorganisms.<ref name="Hong" /> It is used for the production of [[Shochu]] and [[Awamori]].<ref name="Hong" /><ref name="Murooka" />


There are three Aspergillus species that are used as black kōji:<ref name=“Hong” />
There are three Aspergillus species that are used as black kōji:<ref name="Hong" />


* ''[[Aspergillus luchuensis]]'' (synonym ''Aspergillus awamori'', ''Aspergillus kawachii'', ''Aspergillus inuii'', ''Aspergillus nakazawai'' and ''Aspergillus coreanus'', クロコウジキン / 黒麹菌 ‘kuro kōji-kin’)
* ''[[Aspergillus luchuensis]]'' (synonym ''Aspergillus awamori'', ''Aspergillus kawachii'', ''Aspergillus inuii'', ''Aspergillus nakazawai'' and ''Aspergillus coreanus'', クロコウジキン / 黒麹菌 ‘kuro kōji-kin’)
Line 25: Line 25:
* ''[[Aspergillus tubingensis]]'' (synonym ''Aspergillus saitoi'' and ''A. saitoi var. kagoshimaensis'')
* ''[[Aspergillus tubingensis]]'' (synonym ''Aspergillus saitoi'' and ''A. saitoi var. kagoshimaensis'')


White kōji is an [[albinism|albino]] variant of ''Aspergillus luchuensis''.<ref name=“PMID35238900”>T. Futagami: ''The white koji fungus Aspergillus luchuensis mut. kawachii.'' In: ''Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry.'' Volume 86, Number 5, April 2022, p. 574–584, {{DOI|10.1093/bbb/zbac033}}, PMID 35238900 (Review).</ref>
White kōji is an [[albinism|albino]] variant of ''Aspergillus luchuensis''.<ref name="PMID35238900">T. Futagami: ''The white koji fungus Aspergillus luchuensis mut. kawachii.'' In: ''Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry.'' Volume 86, Number 5, April 2022, p. 574–584, {{DOI|10.1093/bbb/zbac033}}, PMID 35238900 (Review).</ref>


== Literature ==
== Literature ==

Revision as of 18:12, 16 May 2024

Kōji (ニホンコウジカビ, 日本麹黴, ‘nihon kōji kabi’) refers to various molds of the genus Aspergillus sp., which are traditionally used in East Asian cuisine for the fermentation of food. In Japanese, kōji refers to both the Aspergillus starter culture and mixtures of Aspergillus with wheat and soybean meal. It can be fried and eaten directly or processed to a sauce.[1]

Characteristics

Four Aspergillus species in a Petri dish. The bottom two are strains of A. oryzae

Various types of kōji are used, including yellow, black, and white.[2][1] The kōji is stored for two to three days at 30 °C under high humidity to allow A. oryzae to grow.[3] In this process, the starch from cereals such as wheat, buckwheat or barley as well as from sweet potato is split into glucose, creating a sweet taste. Due to the amino acids glutamic acid and to a lesser extent also aspartic acid split off from the proteins during fermentation, a strong umami taste is created on the human tongue when consumed.[4][5] Dried kōji-spores can be stored and transported light-protected at room temperature.

Yellow kōji

Aspergillus sojae on soybeans

Yellow kōji is used, among other things, for the production of soy sauce,[3][4] miso,[6][7] sake,[8] tsukemono, jiang, makgeolli, meju, tapai, kōji-amazake, rice vinegar,[9] mirin, shio koji[10] and natto. Typically, for the production of soy sauce (shoyu), soybeans and sometimes also wheat are swollen in water, steamed, and possibly mixed with wheat bran roasted at 160–180 °C and ground. The enrichment with kōji creates a moist mash.[3]

There are three Aspergillus species that are used as yellow kōji:

A. oryzae has three α-amylase genes, which allows it to break down starch relatively quickly into glucose.[3] In contrast, A. sojae has only one α-amylase gene under a weak promoter and the CAAT box has a gene expression attenuating mutation (CCAAA instead of CCAAT), but has a higher enzyme activity of endopolygalacturonase and glutaminase.[3] A too rapid release of glucose from starch at the beginning of fermentation inhibits the growth of the microorganisms in the maturation phase.[3] For the breakdown of proteins to amino acids, ‘‘A. oryzae’’ strain RIB40 has 65 endopeptidase genes and 69 exopeptidase genes, and ‘‘A. sojae’’ strain SMF134 has 83 endopeptidase genes and 67 exopeptidase genes.[3] Various mutants of ‘‘A. oryzae’’ with altered properties were generated by irradiation[3] or by the CRISPR/CAS method.[15][16]

Black & white kōji

Black kōji produces citric acid during fermentation, which inhibits the growth of unwanted microorganisms.[2] It is used for the production of Shochu and Awamori.[2][10]

There are three Aspergillus species that are used as black kōji:[2]

  • Aspergillus luchuensis (synonym Aspergillus awamori, Aspergillus kawachii, Aspergillus inuii, Aspergillus nakazawai and Aspergillus coreanus, クロコウジキン / 黒麹菌 ‘kuro kōji-kin’)
  • Aspergillus niger (synonym Aspergillus batatae, Aspergillus aureus or Aspergillus foetidus, Aspergillus miyakoensis and Aspergillus usamii (including A. usamii mut. shirousamii)
  • Aspergillus tubingensis (synonym Aspergillus saitoi and A. saitoi var. kagoshimaensis)

White kōji is an albino variant of Aspergillus luchuensis.[17]

Literature

  • H. Kitagaki: Medical Application of Substances Derived from Non-Pathogenic Fungi and -Containing. In: Journal of fungi. Band 7, Nummer 4, März 2021, S. , doi:10.3390/jof7040243, PMID 33804991, PMC 8063943.
  • J.E. Smith. Aspergillus. Springer US. pp. 46ff. ISBN 978-1-4615-2411-3.

References

  1. ^ a b René Redzepi, David Zilber: The Noma Handbook Fermentation - How to make Koji, Kombucha, Shoyu, Miso, Vinegar, Garum, lacto-fermented and black fruits and vegetables and cook with them. 5th edition, A. Kunstmann, 2019. ISBN 978-3-95614-293-2.
  2. ^ a b c d S. B. Hong, O. Yamada, R. A. Samson: Taxonomic re-evaluation of black koji molds. In: Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. Volume 98, Number 2, January 2014, p. 555–561, doi:10.1007/s00253-013-5332-9, PMID 24281756 (Review).
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i K. Ito, A. Matsuyama: Koji Molds for Japanese Soy Sauce Brewing: Characteristics and Key Enzymes. In: Journal of fungi. Volume 7, Number 8, August 2021, doi:10.3390/jof7080658, PMID 34436196, PMC 8399179. (English)
  4. ^ a b c C. Diez-Simon, C. Eichelsheim, R. Mumm, R. D. Hall: Chemical and Sensory Characteristics of Soy Sauce: A Review. In: Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. Volume 68, Number 42, October 2020, p. 11612–11630, doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.0c04274, PMID 32880168, PMC 7581291. (English)
  5. ^ H. N. Lioe, J. Selamat, M. Yasuda: Soy sauce and its umami taste: a link from the past to current situation. In: Journal of food science. Volume 75, Number 3, April 2010, p. R71–R76, doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01529.x, PMID 20492309.
  6. ^ J. G. Allwood, L. T. Wakeling, D. C. Bean: Fermentation and the microbial community of Japanese koji and miso: A review. In: Journal of food science. Volume 86, Number 6, June 2021, p. 2194–2207, doi:10.1111/1750-3841.15773, PMID 34056716.
  7. ^ K. I. Kusumoto, Y. Yamagata, R. Tazawa, M. Kitagawa, T. Kato, K. Isobe, Y. Kashiwagi: Japanese Traditional and Making. In: Journal of fungi. Volume 7, Number 7, July 2021, doi:10.3390/jof7070579, PMID 34356958, PMC 8307815.
  8. ^ K. Gomi: Regulatory mechanisms for amylolytic gene expression in the koji mold. In: Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry. Volume 83, Number 8, August 2019, p. 1385–1401, doi:10.1080/09168451.2019.1625265, PMID 31159661.
  9. ^ Rich Shih, Jeremy Umansky: Koji Alchemy, Chelsea Green 2020. ISBN 978-1-6035-8868-3. p. 13–19.
  10. ^ a b Yoshikatsu Murooka: Japanese Food for Health and Longevity - The Science behind a Great Culinary Tradition. Cambridge Scholars 2020. ISBN 978-1-5275-5043-8. p. 45–65.
  11. ^ Ghoson M. Daba, Faten A. Mostafa, Waill A. Elkhateeb: The ancient koji mold (Aspergillus oryzae) as a modern biotechnological tool. In: Bioresources and bioprocessing. 2021, Volume 8, Number 1 doi:10.1186/s40643-021-00408-z, PMID 38650252, PMC 10992763.
  12. ^ a b Martin Weidenbörner (2013). Lexicon of Food Mycology. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 19. ISBN 978-3-642-57058-2.
  13. ^ Keith A. Powell, Annabel Renwick, John F. Peberdy: The Genus Aspergillus: From Taxonomy and Genetics to Industrial Application. Springer, 2013, ISBN 978-1-4899-0981-7, p. 161.
  14. ^ William Shurtleff, Akiko Aoyagi: History of Koji – Grains And/or Soybeans Enrobed with a Mold Culture (300 BCE To 2012). Soyinfo Center, 2012, ISBN 978-1-928914-45-7.
  15. ^ J. I. Maruyama: Genome Editing Technology and Its Application Potentials in the Industrial Filamentous Fungus. In: Journal of fungi. Volume 7, Number 8, August 2021, doi:10.3390/jof7080638, PMID 34436177, PMC 8399504. (English)
  16. ^ F. J. Jin, S. Hu, B. T. Wang, L. Jin: Advances in Genetic Engineering Technology and Its Application in the Industrial Fungus. In: Frontiers in Microbiology. Volume 12, 2021, p. 644404, doi:10.3389/fmicb.2021.644404, PMID 33708187, PMC 7940364.
  17. ^ T. Futagami: The white koji fungus Aspergillus luchuensis mut. kawachii. In: Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry. Volume 86, Number 5, April 2022, p. 574–584, doi:10.1093/bbb/zbac033, PMID 35238900 (Review).
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