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== Controversy over mechanisms and effectiveness ==
== Controversy over mechanisms and effectiveness ==
EMDR has generated a great deal of controversy since its inception in 1989. Critics have argued that the eye movements do not play a central role, that the mechanisms of eye movements are speculative, and that the theory leading to the practice is not falsifiable and therefore not amenable to scientific inquiry.<ref name="Herbert">{{cite journal |author=Herbert JD, Lilienfeld SO, Lohr JM, Montgomery RW, O'Donohue WT, Rosen GM, Tolin DF |title=Science and pseudoscience in the development of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: implications for clinical psychology |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=945–71 |year=2000 |month=November |pmid=11098395 |doi= |url=}}</ref> However, these arguments generally cite articles written more than ten years ago. As recently indicated by Richard McNally,<ref>McNally, R. (2013). "The evolving conceptualization and treatment of PTSD: A very brief history". American Psychological Association Newsletter-Trauma Psychology: 7-11.</ref> one of the earliest and foremost critics: "Shapiro’s (1995) Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) provoked lively debate when it first appeared on the scene in the late 1980s.... Skeptics questioned whether the defining ingredient, bilateral eye movement, possessed any therapeutic efficacy beyond the imaginal exposure component of EMDR.... One meta-analysis suggested that EMDR with the eye movements was no more efficacious than EMDR without the eye movements (Davidson & Parker, 2001),<ref>{{cite journal |author=Davidson PR, Parker KC |title=Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): a meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=305–16 |year=2001 |month=April |pmid=11393607 |doi= |url=}}</ref> thereby implying that "''what is effective in EMDR is not new, and what is new is not effective''". Yet recent basic laboratory research, (Gunter & Bodner, 2008)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gunter RW, Bodner GE |title=How eye movements affect unpleasant memories: support for a working-memory account |journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy |volume=46 |issue=8 |pages=913–31 |year=2008 |month=August |pmid=18565493 |doi=10.1016/j.brat.2008.04.006 |url=}}</ref> including with PTSD patients (van den Hout et al., 2012),<ref>{{cite journal |author=van den Hout MA, Rijkeboer MM, Engelhard IM, Klugkist I, Hornsveld H, Toffolo MJ, Cath DC |title=Tones inferior to eye movements in the EMDR treatment of PTSD |journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=275–9 |year=2012 |month=May |pmid=22440458 |doi=10.1016/j.brat.2012.02.001 |url=}}{{primary source|date=November 2014}}</ref> indicates that secondary tasks, such as eye movements, that tax working memory during recollection of stressful memories attenuate their vividness and emotionality during subsequent recollection (van den Hout & Engelhard, 2012)<ref>van den Hout, M. A., & Engelhard, I. M. (2012). How does EMDR work?. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 3(5), 724-738. doi:10.5127/jep.028212</ref>....In fact, the authors of a recent meta-analysis concluded, 'the eye movements do have an additional value in EMDR treatments' (Lee & Cuijpers, 2013, p. 239)".<ref>Lee, C. W., & Cuijpers, P. (2013). A meta-analysis of the contribution of eye movements in processing emotional memories. Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry, 44(2), 231-239. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.11.001</ref>
EMDR has generated a great deal of controversy since its inception in 1989. In 2000, Herbert et al. argued that the eye movements did not play a central role, that the mechanisms of eye movements were speculative, and that the theory leading to the practice was not falsifiable and therefore not amenable to scientific inquiry.<ref name="Herbert">{{cite journal |author=Herbert JD, Lilienfeld SO, Lohr JM, Montgomery RW, O'Donohue WT, Rosen GM, Tolin DF |title=Science and pseudoscience in the development of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: implications for clinical psychology |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=945–71 |year=2000 |month=November |pmid=11098395 |doi= |url=}}</ref> As discussed in 2013 by Richard McNally,<ref>McNally, R. (2013). "The evolving conceptualization and treatment of PTSD: A very brief history". American Psychological Association Newsletter-Trauma Psychology: 7-11.</ref>{{vn}} one of the earliest and foremost critics: "Shapiro’s (1995) Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) provoked lively debate when it first appeared on the scene in the late 1980s.... Skeptics questioned whether the defining ingredient, bilateral eye movement, possessed any therapeutic efficacy beyond the imaginal exposure component of EMDR.... A 2001 meta-analysis suggested that EMDR with the eye movements was no more efficacious than EMDR without the eye movements (Davidson & Parker, 2001),<ref>{{cite journal |author=Davidson PR, Parker KC |title=Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): a meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=305–16 |year=2001 |month=April |pmid=11393607 |doi= |url=}}</ref> implying that "''what is effective in EMDR is not new, and what is new is not effective''". Yet more recent basic laboratory research, (Gunter & Bodner, 2008)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gunter RW, Bodner GE |title=How eye movements affect unpleasant memories: support for a working-memory account |journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy |volume=46 |issue=8 |pages=913–31 |year=2008 |month=August |pmid=18565493 |doi=10.1016/j.brat.2008.04.006 }}</ref> including with PTSD patients (van den Hout et al., 2012),<ref>{{cite journal |author=van den Hout MA, Rijkeboer MM, Engelhard IM, Klugkist I, Hornsveld H, Toffolo MJ, Cath DC |title=Tones inferior to eye movements in the EMDR treatment of PTSD |journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=275–9 |year=2012 |month=May |pmid=22440458 |doi=10.1016/j.brat.2012.02.001 |url=}}{{primary source|date=November 2014}}</ref> indicates that secondary tasks, such as eye movements, that tax working memory during recollection of stressful memories attenuate their vividness and emotionality during subsequent recollection (van den Hout & Engelhard, 2012)<ref>{{cite journal|author=van den Hout MA, Engelhard IM |year=2012 |title=How does EMDR work? |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychopathology |volume=3|issue=5|pages=724-738|doi=10.5127/jep.028212 }}</ref>{{vn}} In fact, a 2013 meta-analysis concluded, 'the eye movements do have an additional value in EMDR treatments' (Lee & Cuijpers, 2013, p. 239)".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lee CW, Cuijpers P |year=2013 |title=A meta-analysis of the contribution of eye movements in processing emotional memories |journal=Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=231-239 |doi=10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.11.001 |pmid=23266601 }}</ref>


Likewise, Salkovskis in 2002 reported that the eye movement is irrelevant, and that the effectiveness of EMDR was solely due to its having properties similar to CBT, such as desensitization and exposure.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Salkovskis P |title=Review: eye movement desensitization and reprocessing is not better than exposure therapies for anxiety or trauma |journal=Evidence-based Mental Health |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=13 |year=2002 |month=February |pmid=11915816 |doi=10.1136/ebmh.5.1.13 |url=}}</ref> However, the 2013 World Health Organization practice guidelines drew clear distinctions in contrasting CBT and EMDR therapy procedures: "This therapy [EMDR] is based on the idea that negative thoughts, feelings and behaviours are the result of unprocessed memories. The treatment involves standardized procedures that include focusing simultaneously on (a) spontaneous associations of traumatic images, thoughts, emotions and bodily sensations and (b) bilateral stimulation that is most commonly in the form of repeated eye movements. Like CBT with a trauma focus, EMDR aims to reduce subjective distress and strengthen adaptive beliefs related to the traumatic event. Unlike CBT with a trauma focus, EMDR does not involve (a) detailed descriptions of the event, (b) direct challenging of beliefs, (c) extended exposure, or (d) homework".<ref>World Health Organization (2013). Guidelines for the management of conditions that are specifically related to stress. Geneva, [http://www.who.int/mental_health/emergencies/stress_guidelines/en/ who.int] PMID 24049868</ref>
Likewise, Salkovskis in 2002 reported that the eye movement is irrelevant, and that the effectiveness of EMDR was solely due to its having properties similar to CBT, such as desensitization and exposure.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Salkovskis P |title=Review: eye movement desensitization and reprocessing is not better than exposure therapies for anxiety or trauma |journal=Evidence-based Mental Health |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=13 |year=2002 |month=February |pmid=11915816 |doi=10.1136/ebmh.5.1.13 |url=}}</ref> However, the 2013 World Health Organization practice guidelines drew clear distinctions in contrasting CBT and EMDR therapy procedures: "This therapy [EMDR] is based on the idea that negative thoughts, feelings and behaviours are the result of unprocessed memories. The treatment involves standardized procedures that include focusing simultaneously on (a) spontaneous associations of traumatic images, thoughts, emotions and bodily sensations and (b) bilateral stimulation that is most commonly in the form of repeated eye movements. Like CBT with a trauma focus, EMDR aims to reduce subjective distress and strengthen adaptive beliefs related to the traumatic event. Unlike CBT with a trauma focus, EMDR does not involve (a) detailed descriptions of the event, (b) direct challenging of beliefs, (c) extended exposure, or (d) homework".<ref>{{cite web |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2013 |title=Guidelines for the management of conditions that are specifically related to stress |location=Geneva |url=http://www.who.int/mental_health/emergencies/stress_guidelines/en/ |pmid=24049868 }}</ref>


Although one early meta-analysis conducted in 2002 concluded that EMDR is not as effective, or as long lasting, as traditional [[exposure therapy]],<ref> Devilly, G.J. (2002) Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing: A Chronology of Its Development and Scientific Standing, The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice, Fall -Winter 2002 Vol. 1 No. 2</ref> several other researchers using meta-analysis have found EMDR to be at least equivalent in effect size to specific exposure therapies.<ref>Van Etten, M. L.; Taylor, S. (1998). "Comparative efficacy of treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis". Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy 5 (3): 126–144. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0879(199809)5:3<126::AID-CPP153>3.0.CO;2-H</ref><ref>Bradley, R., Greene, J., Russ, E., Dutra, L., & Westen, D. (2005). A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(2), 214-227. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.76.2.259 </ref><ref>Lee, C. W., & Cuijpers, P. (2013). A meta-analysis of the contribution of eye movements in processing emotional memories. Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry, 44(2), 231-239.doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.11.001</ref><ref>Seidler, G. H., & Wagner, F. E. (2006). Comparing the efficacy of EMDR and trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of PTSD: a meta-analytic study. Psychological medicine, 36(11), 1515-1522. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291706007963 dx.doi.org]</ref> Further the two most recent meta-analyses conducted in 2013, including the Cochrane review, have indicated that CBT and EMDR therapy are well-supported by research and superior to all other psychotherapies.<ref>Bisson, J., Roberts, N.P., Andrew, M., Cooper, R. & Lewis, C. (2013). Psychological therapies for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003388.pub4</ref><ref>Watts, B.V. et al. (2013). Meta-analysis of the efficacy of treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 74, e541-550. doi:10.4088/JCP.12r08225</ref>
Although one early meta-analysis conducted in 2002 concluded that EMDR is not as effective, or as long lasting, as traditional [[exposure therapy]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Devilly GJ |year=2002 |title=Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: a chronology of its development and scientific standing |journal=The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice |date=Fall-Winter 2002 |volume=1 |issue=2 }}</ref>{{vn}} other researchers using meta-analysis had found EMDR to be at least equivalent in effect size to specific exposure therapies.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Van Etten ML, Taylor S |year=1998 |title=Comparative efficacy of treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis |journal=Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=126–144 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-0879(199809)5:3<126::AID-CPP153>3.0.CO;2-H }}</ref>{{vn}}<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bradley R, Greene J, Russ E, Dutra L, Westen D |year=2005 |title=A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=162 |issue=2 |pages=214-227 |doi=10.1037/0022-006X.76.2.259 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Lee CW, Cuijpers P |year=2013 |title=A meta-analysis of the contribution of eye movements in processing emotional memories |journal=Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=231-239 |doi=10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.11.001 |pmid=23266601 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Seidler GH, Wagner FE |year=2006 |title=Comparing the efficacy of EMDR and trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of PTSD: a meta-analytic study |journal=Psychological Medicine |volume=36 |issue=11 |pages=1515-1522 |doi=10.1017/S0033291706007963 |pmid=16740177 }}</ref> Further the two most recent meta-analyses conducted in 2013, including the Cochrane review, have indicated that CBT and EMDR therapy are well-supported by research and superior to all other psychotherapies.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bisson J, Roberts NP, Andrew M, Cooper R, Lewis C |year=2013 |title=Psychological therapies for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |year=2013 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003388.pub4 |pmid=24338345 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Watts BV, Schnurr PP, Mayo L, Young-Xu Y, Weeks WB, Friedman MJ |year=2013 |title=Meta-analysis of the efficacy of treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder |journal=Journal of Clinical Psychiatry |volume=74 |pages=e541-550 |doi=10.4088/JCP.12r08225 |pmid=23842024 }}</ref>


The working mechanisms that underlie the effectiveness of EMDR therapy are still under investigation. Those that have received research support from the eye movement studies include (1) taxing working memory<ref>Hornsveld, H. K., Landwehr, F., Stein, W., Stomp, M. P., Smeets, M. A., & van den Hout, M. A. (2010). Emotionality of loss-related memories is reduced after recall plus eye movements but not after recall plus music or recall only. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 4(3), 106-112.http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/1933-3196.4.3.106</ref><ref>Leer, A., Engelhard, I. M., & van den Hout, M. A. (2014). How eye movements in EMDR work: Changes in memory vividness and emotionality. Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry, 45(3), 396-401. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.04.004</ref><ref>Lilley, S. A., Andrade, J., Turpin, G., Sabin‐Farrell, R., & Holmes, E. A. (2009). Visuospatial working memory interference with recollections of trauma. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 48(3), 309-321. doi:10.1348/014466508X398943</ref> and (2) orienting response/REM sleep<ref>Elofsson, U. O., von Schèele, B., Theorell, T., & Söndergaard, H. P. (2008). Physiological correlates of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22(4), 622-634. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.05.012</ref><ref> MacCulloch, M. J., & Feldman, P. (1996). Eye movement desensitization treatment utilizes the positive visceral element of the investigatory reflex to inhibit the memories of post-traumatic stress disorder: A theoretical analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 571–579.</ref><ref>Kuiken, D., Chudleigh, M., & Racher, D. (2010). Bilateral eye movements, attentional flexibility and metaphor comprehension: the substrate of REM dreaming?. Dreaming, 20(4), 227. doi:10.1037/a0020841</ref>
The working mechanisms that underlie the effectiveness of EMDR therapy are still under investigation. Those that have received research support from the eye movement studies include (1) taxing working memory<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hornsveld HK, Landwehr F, Stein W, Stomp MP, Smeets MA, van den Hout MA |date=1 August 2010 |title=Emotionality of loss-related memories is reduced after recall plus eye movements but not after recall plus music or recall only |journal=Journal of EMDR Practice and Research |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=106-112 |doi=10.1891/1933-3196.4.3.106 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Leer A, Engelhard IM, van den Hout MA |year=2014 |title=How eye movements in EMDR work: Changes in memory vividness and emotionality |journal=Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=396-401 |doi=10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.04.004 |pmid=24814304 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Lilley SA, Andrade J, Turpin G, Sabin‐Farrell R, Holmes EA |year=2009 |title=Visuospatial working memory interference with recollections of trauma |journal=British Journal of Clinical Psychology |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=309-321 |doi=10.1348/014466508X398943 |pmid=19187579 }}</ref> and (2) orienting response/REM sleep<ref>{{cite journal |author=Elofsson UO, von Schèele B, Theorell T, Söndergaard HP |year=2008 |title=Physiological correlates of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing |journal=Journal of Anxiety Disorders |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=622-634 |doi=10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.05.012 |pmid=17604948 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=MacCulloch MJ, Feldman P |year=1996 |title=Eye movement desensitization treatment utilizes the positive visceral element of the investigatory reflex to inhibit the memories of post-traumatic stress disorder: A theoretical analysis |journal=British Journal of Psychiatry |volume=169 |pages=571–579 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kuiken D, Chudleigh M, Racher D |year=2010 |title=Bilateral eye movements, attentional flexibility and metaphor comprehension: the substrate of REM dreaming? |journal=Dreaming |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=227 |doi=10.1037/a0020841 }}</ref>{{vn}}


== Notes ==
== Notes ==

Revision as of 17:54, 25 November 2014

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) is a psychotherapy developed by Francine Shapiro that emphasizes disturbing memories as the cause of psychopathology[1][2] and alleviates the symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

EMDR is used for individuals who have experienced severe trauma that remains unresolved.[3] According to Shapiro, when a traumatic or distressing experience occurs, it may overwhelm normal cognitive and neurological coping mechanisms. The memory and associated stimuli are inadequately processed and stored in an isolated memory network.[1]

The goal of EMDR therapy is to process these distressing memories, reducing their lingering effects and allowing clients to develop more adaptive coping mechanisms. This is done in an eight-phase approach that includes having clients recall distressing images while receiving one of several types of bilateral sensory input, including side to side eye movements.[4] The use of EMDR was originally developed to treat adults suffering from PTSD; however, it is also used to treat other conditions and children.[5]

Development

EMDR therapy was first developed by Francine Shapiro upon noticing that certain eye movements reduced the intensity of disturbing thought. She then conducted a scientific study with trauma victims in 1988 and the research was published in the Journal of Traumatic Stress in 1989[6]

Shapiro noted that, when she was experiencing a disturbing thought, her eyes were involuntarily moving rapidly. She noticed further that, when she brought her eye movements under voluntary control while thinking a traumatic thought, anxiety was reduced.[7] Shapiro developed EMDR therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. She speculated that traumatic events "upset the excitatory/inhibitory balance in the brain, causing a pathological change in the neural elements".[7]

EMDR is now recommended as an effective treatment for trauma in the Practice Guidelines of the American Psychiatric Association,[8] the Departments of Veterans Affairs and Defense,[9] SAMSHA,[10] the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies,[11] and the World Health Organization.[12]

EMDR therapy uses a structured eight-phase approach to address the past, present, and future aspects of a traumatic or distressing memory. The therapy process and procedures are guided by the Adaptive Information Processing model.[13]

Approach

EMDR therapy consists of eight phases and each phase has its precise intentions.[14][15]

Phase I History and Treatment Planning

The therapist will conduct an initial evaluation of the client’s history and develop a general plan for treatment. This includes the problems which are the primary complaint of the client and a history of distressing memories which will become the targets for reprocessing.

Phase II Preparation

The therapist helps the client develop ways to cope with distressing emotions so that they are able to calm down and help themselves in between therapy sessions. Commonly this is done with guided imagery or other relaxation techniques.

Phase III Assessment

The therapist asks the client to visualize an image that represents the disturbing event. Along with it, the client will describe a thought or negative cognition (NC) associated with the image. The client will be asked to develop a positive cognition (PC) to be associated with the same image that is desired in place of the negative one. The client is asked how strongly he or she believes the PCs to be true using a 1-7 scale (completely false to completely true) called the Validity of Cognition (VOC) scale. The client is also asked to identify what emotions he or she feels. The client is then asked to rate his or her level of distress on a scale from 0-10, with 0 being no distress and 10 being the most distress they can imagine. This is the same as a Subjective Units of Distress scale (SUD) that is commonly used in cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Finally the client is asked to identify where in the body he or she is sensing the feelings.

Phase IV Desensitization

During the reprocessing phases of EMDR therapy, the client focuses on the disturbing memory in multiple brief sets of about 15–30 seconds. Simultaneously, the client focuses on the dual attention stimulus, which consists of focusing on the trauma while the clinician initiates lateral eye movement or another stimulus such as a pulsing light held in each hand, or tapping on the knees.[16] Following each set, the client is asked what associative information was elicited during the procedure. This new material usually becomes the focus of the next set or another aspect of the memory may be guided by the clinician. This process of personal association is repeated many times during the session.[16] This process continues until the client no longer feels as distressed when thinking of the target memory.

Phase V Installation

The therapist asks the client to focus on the event along with the PC developed in phase III. The client is asked to hold in mind the memory with the positive thought as the therapist continues with the bilateral stimulation. When the client feels he or she is certain the PC is fully believed and that belief is as strong as possible, the installation phase is complete.

Phase VI Body Scan

At this phase the goal of the therapist is to identify any uncomfortable sensations that could be lingering in the body when the client is thinking about the target memory and the PC. While thinking about the event and the positive belief the client is asked to scan over his or her body entirely, searching for tension, tightness or other unusual physical sensation. Any negative sensations are targeted and then diminished, using the same bilateral stimulation technique from phases IV and V. The PCs should be incorporated emotionally as well as intellectually. Phase VI is complete when the client is able to think and speak about the event along with the PC without feeling any physical or emotional discomfort.

Phase VII Closure

Not all traumatic events will be resolved completely within one session. If the client is significantly distressed the therapist will guide the client through relaxation techniques that are designed to bring about emotional stability and tranquility. The client will also be asked to use these same techniques for experiences that might arise between sessions such as strong emotions, unwanted imagery, and negative thoughts. The client may be encouraged to keep a brief log of these experiences, allowing for easy recall and processing during the next session.

Phase VIII Reevaluation

With every new session, the therapist will reevaluate the work done in the prior session. The therapist will also assess how well the client managed on his or her own in between visits. At this point, the therapist will decide whether it is best to continue working on previous targets or continue to newer ones.

Empirical evidence and comparison

In a 2007 review of 33 randomised controlled trials of various psychological treatments for PTSD, EMDR was rated as an effective method, not significantly different in effect from Trauma-Focused CBT or stress management (SM) treatments.[17] EMDR did significantly better than other therapies, according to patient self-reports.[17] The International Society of Stress Studies practice guidelines categorized EMDR as an evidence-based level A treatment for PTSD in adults.[18]

Some international guidelines recommended EMDR therapy - as well as CBT and exposure therapy - for treating trauma.[18][19][20][21]

In 2013 the World Health Organization practice guidelines reported that trauma-focused CBT and EMDR therapy are the only psychotherapies recommended for children, adolescents, and adults with PTSD.[12] Research on the application of EMDR therapy continues, and several meta-analyses have been performed to further evaluate its efficacy in the treatment of PTSD. In one meta-analysis of PTSD, EMDR was reported to be as effective as exposure therapy and SSRIs.[22] Two separate meta-analyses suggested that traditional exposure therapy and EMDR have equivalent effects both immediately after treatment and at follow-up.[23][24] A 2007 meta-analysis of 38 randomized controlled trials for PTSD treatment suggested that the first-line psychological treatment for PTSD should be Trauma-Focused CBT or EMDR therapy.[25] A review of rape treatment outcomes concluded that EMDR had some efficacy.[26] Another meta-analysis concluded that all "bona fide" treatments were equally effective, but there was some debate regarding the study's selection of which treatments were "bona fide".[27] A comparative review concluded EMDR to be of similar efficacy to other exposure therapies and more effective than SSRIs, problem-centered therapy, or 'treatment as usual'.[28]

Other applications

Although controlled research has concentrated on the application of EMDR to PTSD, a number of studies have investigated EMDR therapy’s efficacy with other disorders, such as borderline personality disorder,[29] anxiety disorders,[30] somatic disorders such as phantom limb pain,[31][32] body dysmorphic disorder,[33] depression[34] and psychosis.[35]

In children

EMDR has been used effectively in the treatment of children who have experienced trauma and complex trauma,[36] for instance child abuse.[37] EMDR is often cited as a component in the treatment of complex post-traumatic stress disorder.[38][39]

Controversy over mechanisms and effectiveness

EMDR has generated a great deal of controversy since its inception in 1989. In 2000, Herbert et al. argued that the eye movements did not play a central role, that the mechanisms of eye movements were speculative, and that the theory leading to the practice was not falsifiable and therefore not amenable to scientific inquiry.[40] As discussed in 2013 by Richard McNally,[41][verification needed] one of the earliest and foremost critics: "Shapiro’s (1995) Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) provoked lively debate when it first appeared on the scene in the late 1980s.... Skeptics questioned whether the defining ingredient, bilateral eye movement, possessed any therapeutic efficacy beyond the imaginal exposure component of EMDR.... A 2001 meta-analysis suggested that EMDR with the eye movements was no more efficacious than EMDR without the eye movements (Davidson & Parker, 2001),[42] implying that "what is effective in EMDR is not new, and what is new is not effective". Yet more recent basic laboratory research, (Gunter & Bodner, 2008)[43] including with PTSD patients (van den Hout et al., 2012),[44] indicates that secondary tasks, such as eye movements, that tax working memory during recollection of stressful memories attenuate their vividness and emotionality during subsequent recollection (van den Hout & Engelhard, 2012)[45][verification needed] In fact, a 2013 meta-analysis concluded, 'the eye movements do have an additional value in EMDR treatments' (Lee & Cuijpers, 2013, p. 239)".[46]

Likewise, Salkovskis in 2002 reported that the eye movement is irrelevant, and that the effectiveness of EMDR was solely due to its having properties similar to CBT, such as desensitization and exposure.[47] However, the 2013 World Health Organization practice guidelines drew clear distinctions in contrasting CBT and EMDR therapy procedures: "This therapy [EMDR] is based on the idea that negative thoughts, feelings and behaviours are the result of unprocessed memories. The treatment involves standardized procedures that include focusing simultaneously on (a) spontaneous associations of traumatic images, thoughts, emotions and bodily sensations and (b) bilateral stimulation that is most commonly in the form of repeated eye movements. Like CBT with a trauma focus, EMDR aims to reduce subjective distress and strengthen adaptive beliefs related to the traumatic event. Unlike CBT with a trauma focus, EMDR does not involve (a) detailed descriptions of the event, (b) direct challenging of beliefs, (c) extended exposure, or (d) homework".[48]

Although one early meta-analysis conducted in 2002 concluded that EMDR is not as effective, or as long lasting, as traditional exposure therapy,[49][verification needed] other researchers using meta-analysis had found EMDR to be at least equivalent in effect size to specific exposure therapies.[50][verification needed][51][52][53] Further the two most recent meta-analyses conducted in 2013, including the Cochrane review, have indicated that CBT and EMDR therapy are well-supported by research and superior to all other psychotherapies.[54][55]

The working mechanisms that underlie the effectiveness of EMDR therapy are still under investigation. Those that have received research support from the eye movement studies include (1) taxing working memory[56][57][58] and (2) orienting response/REM sleep[59][60][61][verification needed]

Notes

  1. ^ a b Shapiro, Francine; Laliotis, Deany (12 October 2010). "EMDR and the adaptive information processing model: Integrative treatment and case conceptualization". Clinical Social Work Journal. 39 (2): 191–200. doi:10.1007/s10615-010-0300-7.
  2. ^ "What is EMDR?". Retrieved 30 March 2013.
  3. ^ Horton, Hilary (June 2011). "Dealing with self distress". Occupational Health. 63 (6): 20–22.
  4. ^ Feske, Ulrike (1998). "Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder". Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 5 (2): 171. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.1998.tb00142.x.
  5. ^ Greyber, Laura; Catherine Dulmus; Maria Cristalli (17 June 2012). "Eye movement desensitization reprocessing, posttraumatic stress disorder, and trauma: A review of randomized controlled trials with children and adolescents". Child Adolescent Social Work Journal. 29 (5): 409–425. doi:10.1007/s10560-012-0266-0.
  6. ^ Glaser, Tom. "How was EMDR Developed?". Retrieved 8 March 2013.
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