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==Cultivation==
==Cultivation==

=== Climate and growing cycle length ===

The growing cycle length varies over cultivation locations of chia and is influenced by elevation.<ref name="ayerza_coates2009">{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1016/j.indcrop.2009.03.009
| issn = 0926-6690
| volume = 30
| issue = 2
| pages = 321–324
| last = Ayerza (h)
| first = Ricardo
| coauthors = Wayne Coates
| title = Influence of environment on growing period and yield, protein, oil and α-linolenic content of three chia (Salvia hispanica L.) selections
| journal = Industrial Crops and Products
| accessdate = 2014-09-29
| year = 2009
| url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092666900900051X
}}</ref> For production sites located in different ecosystems in Bolivia, Argentina and Ecuador growing cycle lengths between 100 days and 150 days are observed.<ref name="ayerza2009">{{Cite journal
| volume = 58
| issue = 7
| pages = 347–354
| last = Ayerza
| first = Ricardo
| title = The Seed’s Protein and Oil Content, Fatty Acid Composition, and Growing Cycle Length of a Single Genotype of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) as Affected by Environmental Factors
| journal = Journal of Oleo Science
| year = 2009
| url = https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jos/58/7/58_7_347/_article
}}</ref> Thereby, the commercial production fields are located in the range of 8 meters and 2200 metres altitude across a varity of ecosystems ranging from tropical coastal desert to tropical rain forest and inter-Andean dry valley. <ref name="ayerza2009" /> In North Western Argentina a time span from planting to harvest of between 120 and 180 days is reported for fields located between around 900 and 1500 metres above sea level. <ref name="ayerza1998">{{Cite journal
| volume = 75
| issue = 10
| pages = 1417–1420
| last = Coates
| first = Wayne
| coauthors = Ricardo Ayerza (h)
| title = Commercial production of chia in Northwestern Argentina
| journal = Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society
| accessdate = 2014-10-08
| date = 1998
| url = http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11746-998-0192-7
}}</ref>

''S. hispanica'' is a short-day flowering plant. <ref name="jamboonsri">{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1007/s10722-011-9673-x
| volume = 59
| issue = 2
| pages = 171–178
| last = Jamboonsri
| first = Watchareewan
| coauthors = Timothy D. Phillips, Robert L. Geneve, Joseph P. Cahill, David F. Hildebrand
| title = Extending the range of an ancient crop, Salvia hispanica L.—a new ω3 source
| journal = Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution
| accessdate = 2014-09-29
| year = 2012
| url = http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10722-011-9673-x
}}</ref> Photoperiodic sensitivity and the lack of photoperiodic variability in traditional cultivars has limited chia seed production potential to tropical and subtropical latitudes until recently. <ref name="university_kentucky2012">{{Cite conference
| publisher = Cooperative Extension Service. University of Kentucky – College of Agriculture
| title = Chia
| accessdate = 2014-11-18
| year = 2012
| url = http://www.uky.edu/Ag/CCD/introsheets/chia.pdf
}}</ref> Traditional domesticated lines of ''S. hispanica'' can be grown in temporal zones at higher latitudes in the United States. <ref name="jamboonsri"></ref> In places such as Arizona or Kentucky seed maturation of traditional chia cultivars is stopped by frost before or after flower set and seed harvesting is not possible <ref name="jamboonsri"></ref> However, recent advances in breeding led to the the development of new early flowering chia genotypes by researches of the University of Kentucky, which are now sucessfully grown in temperate areas of the United States. <ref name="university_kentucky2012"></ref>

=== Soil requirements ===

The cultivation of ''S. hispanica'' requires light to medium clay, and sandy soils. <ref name="munoz2013">{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1080/87559129.2013.818014
| volume = 29
| issue = 4
| pages = 394–408
| last = Muñoz
| first = Loreto A.
| coauthors = Angel Cobos, Olga Diaz, José Miguel Aguilera
| title = Chia Seed ( <i>Salvia hispanica</i> ): An Ancient Grain and a New Functional Food
| journal = Food Reviews International
| accessdate = 2014-10-07
| year = 2013
| url = http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/87559129.2013.818014
}}</ref> The plant is preferably grown in well-drained and moderately fertile soils.<ref name="university_kentucky2012"></ref> Chia can cope with acid soils and moderate drought.<ref name="munoz2013"></ref> Sown chia seeds need moisture for seedling establishment, while the chia plant doesn't tolerate wet soils during growth.<ref name="university_kentucky2012"></ref> Chia is cultivated under a wide range of soil types such as cambisols, regosols, planosols, calcaric rhegosols, and entisols. <ref name="ayerza_coates2009"></ref>

=== Seedbed requirements and sowing ===

Traditional cultivation techniques of ''S. hispanica'' involves soil preparation by disruption and loosening of soil and broadcasting chia seeds.<ref name="cahill2005">{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.2993/0278-0771(2005)25[155:HSADOC]2.0.CO;2
| issn = 0278-0771
| volume = 25
| issue = 2
| pages = 155–174
| last = Cahill
| first = Joseph P.
| title = Human Selection and Domestication of Chia (<i>Salvia hispanica</i> L.)
| journal = Journal of Ethnobiology
| accessdate = 2014-09-29
| year = 2005
| url = http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.2993/0278-0771%282005%2925%5B155%3AHSADOC%5D2.0.CO%3B2
}}</ref> In modern commercial chia production a typical seeding rate of 6 kg/ha and a row spacing ranging from 0.7 metres to 0.8 metres is usually applied in fields. <ref name="ayerza1998"></ref>

=== Fertilization ===

''S. hispanica'' can be cultivated under low fertilizer input. <ref name="jamboonsri"></ref> In some areas up to 100 kg nitrogen per hectare are applied, in other farms no additional fertilizer is used. <ref name="coates_ayerza1996">{{Cite journal
| volume = 5
| issue = 3
| pages = 229–233
| last = Coates
| first = Wayne
| coauthors = Ricardo Ayerza
| title = Production potential of chia in northwestern Argentina
| journal = Industrial Crops and Products
| accessdate = 2014-10-08
| year = 1996
| url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0926669096894544
}}</ref>

=== Irrigation ===

The irrigation frequency in chia production fields can vary between none and eight irrigations per growing season. <ref name="coates_ayerza1996"></ref> The watering regime depends on the climatic conditions and on the average annual rainfall. <ref name="coates_ayerza1996"></ref> In Northwestern Argentina none to three irrigations are usually applied under conditions of approximately 200 millimeters of rainfall received during the growing season. <ref name="ayerza1998"></ref>


==Mesoamerican usage==
==Mesoamerican usage==

Revision as of 16:53, 2 December 2014

For the related plant also known as "chia", see Salvia columbariae.

Chia
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Asterids
Order:
Lamiales
Family:
Lamiaceae
Genus:
Salvia
Species:
S. hispanica
Binomial name
Salvia hispanica
Synonyms[1]
  • Kiosmina hispanica (L.) Raf.
  • Salvia chia Colla
  • Salvia chia Sessé & Moc. nom. illeg.
  • Salvia neohispanica Briq. nom. illeg.
  • Salvia prysmatica Cav.
  • Salvia schiedeana Stapf
  • Salvia tetragona Moench
Chia seeds
Mexican agua fresca made of chía

Salvia hispanica, commonly known as chia, is a species of flowering plant in the mint family, Lamiaceae, native to central and southern Mexico and Guatemala.[2] The 16th-century Codex Mendoza provides evidence that it was cultivated by the Aztec in pre-Columbian times; economic historians have suggested it was as important as maize as a food crop.[3] Ground or whole chia seeds are still used in Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina, Mexico and Guatemala for nutritious drinks and as a food source.[4][5]

Etymology

The word "chia" is derived from the Nahuatl word chian, meaning oily.[1] The present Mexican state of Chiapas received its name from the Nahuatl "chia water" or "chia river".

It is one of two plants known as chia, the other being Salvia columbariae, which is more commonly known as the golden chia.

Description

Chia is an annual herb growing up to 1.75 m (5.7 ft) tall, with opposite leaves that are 4–8 cm (1.6–3.1 in) long and 3–5 cm (1.2–2.0 in) wide. Its flowers are purple or white and are produced in numerous clusters in a spike at the end of each stem.[6] Chia is hardy from USDA Zones 9–12. Many plants cultivated as S. hispanica are actually S. lavandulifolia.[7]

Seeds

Chia is grown commercially for its seed, a food that is rich in omega-3 fatty acids, since the seeds yield 25–30% extractable oil, including α-linolenic acid (ALA). Of total fat, the composition of the oil can be 55% ω-3, 18% ω-6, 6% ω-9, and 10% saturated fat.[8]

Chia seeds are typically small ovals with a diameter of about 1 mm (0.039 in). They are mottle-colored with brown, gray, black and white. The seeds are hydrophilic, absorbing up to 12 times their weight in liquid when soaked. While soaking, the seeds develop a mucilaginous gel-like coating that gives chia-based beverages a distinctive texture.

Chia seed is traditionally consumed in Mexico, and the southwestern United States, but is not widely known in Europe. Chia (or chian or chien) has mostly been identified as Salvia hispanica L. Today, chia is grown commercially in its native Mexico, and in Bolivia, Argentina, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Guatemala, and Australia. In 2008, Australia was the world's largest producer of chia.[9] A similar species, Salvia columbariae or golden chia, is used in the same way but is not grown commercially for food. Salvia hispanica seed is marketed most often under its common name "chia", but also under several trademarks.

Nutrient content and food uses

According to the USDA, a one ounce (28 gram) serving of chia seeds contains 9 grams of fat, 5 milligrams of sodium, 11 grams of dietary fiber, 4 grams of protein, 18% of the recommended daily intake of calcium, 27% phosphorus and 30% manganese.[8] These nutrient values are similar to other edible seeds, such as flax or sesame.[10][11]

In 2009, the European Union approved chia seeds as a novel food, allowing up to 5% of a bread product's total matter.[12]

Chia seeds may be added to other foods as a topping or put into smoothies, breakfast cereals, energy bars, granola bars, yogurt, made into a gelatin-like substance, or consumed raw.[13][14]

The gelatin-gel can also be used to replace as much as 25% of eggs and oil in cakes while providing other nutrients.[15]

Chia can be used to enhance the nutritional value of many other food products. (E.g. tortillas [16], cake, drinks etc.). Common buckwheat has a high nutritional value due to phenolic compounds (e.g. rutin, quercetin etc.), its protein content (10.6g/100g of dry weight), dietary fibre, a balanced amino acid composition (high levels of Lysine (5.84g/100g protein) and leucine (6.92g/100g protein)).[17] Neither Chia nor common buckwheat contain gluten, combining these two main ingredients (e.g. ration of 10%:90%) will result in a gluten-free bread with an improved nutritional value and healthy features.[17] Common buckwheat bread has a very dense structure due to the lack of gluten which makes wheat bread rise.[17] Adding 10% of chia has shown to reduce the dense structure somewhat, probably due to the mucilaginous matrix of chia seeds.[17] Further research is needed regarding the sensory acceptability of this special bread.[17]

Preliminary health research

Although preliminary research indicates potential for health benefits from consuming chia seeds, this work remains sparse and inconclusive.[18]

One pilot study found that 10 weeks ingestion of 25 grams per day of milled chia seeds, compared to intact seeds, produced higher blood levels of alpha-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid, an omega-3 long-chain fatty acid considered good for the heart, while having no effect on inflammation or disease risk factors.[19][20]

Drug interactions

Case reports have showed that there is an increased bleeding risk in patients using an anticoagulant if also consuming chia seeds;[21] accordingly, chia seeds should be used with caution by patients medicated with anticoagulants or aspirin.

Safety in pregnancy and lactation

There is a lack of safety information on the use of chia seeds in pregnancy and lactation, so it is advised to avoid use until more safety data has been established. [22]

Cultivation

Climate and growing cycle length

The growing cycle length varies over cultivation locations of chia and is influenced by elevation.[23] For production sites located in different ecosystems in Bolivia, Argentina and Ecuador growing cycle lengths between 100 days and 150 days are observed.[24] Thereby, the commercial production fields are located in the range of 8 meters and 2200 metres altitude across a varity of ecosystems ranging from tropical coastal desert to tropical rain forest and inter-Andean dry valley. [24] In North Western Argentina a time span from planting to harvest of between 120 and 180 days is reported for fields located between around 900 and 1500 metres above sea level. [25]

S. hispanica is a short-day flowering plant. [26] Photoperiodic sensitivity and the lack of photoperiodic variability in traditional cultivars has limited chia seed production potential to tropical and subtropical latitudes until recently. [27] Traditional domesticated lines of S. hispanica can be grown in temporal zones at higher latitudes in the United States. [26] In places such as Arizona or Kentucky seed maturation of traditional chia cultivars is stopped by frost before or after flower set and seed harvesting is not possible [26] However, recent advances in breeding led to the the development of new early flowering chia genotypes by researches of the University of Kentucky, which are now sucessfully grown in temperate areas of the United States. [27]

Soil requirements

The cultivation of S. hispanica requires light to medium clay, and sandy soils. [28] The plant is preferably grown in well-drained and moderately fertile soils.[27] Chia can cope with acid soils and moderate drought.[28] Sown chia seeds need moisture for seedling establishment, while the chia plant doesn't tolerate wet soils during growth.[27] Chia is cultivated under a wide range of soil types such as cambisols, regosols, planosols, calcaric rhegosols, and entisols. [23]

Seedbed requirements and sowing

Traditional cultivation techniques of S. hispanica involves soil preparation by disruption and loosening of soil and broadcasting chia seeds.[29] In modern commercial chia production a typical seeding rate of 6 kg/ha and a row spacing ranging from 0.7 metres to 0.8 metres is usually applied in fields. [25]

Fertilization

S. hispanica can be cultivated under low fertilizer input. [26] In some areas up to 100 kg nitrogen per hectare are applied, in other farms no additional fertilizer is used. [30]

Irrigation

The irrigation frequency in chia production fields can vary between none and eight irrigations per growing season. [30] The watering regime depends on the climatic conditions and on the average annual rainfall. [30] In Northwestern Argentina none to three irrigations are usually applied under conditions of approximately 200 millimeters of rainfall received during the growing season. [25]

Mesoamerican usage

Drawing from the Florentine Codex showing a Salvia hispanica plant[3]
Seeds, chia seeds, dried
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy2,034 kJ (486 kcal)
42.12 g
Dietary fiber34.4 g
30.74 g
Saturated3.330
Monounsaturated2.309
Polyunsaturated23.665
16.54 g
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
6%
54 μg
Thiamine (B1)
52%
0.62 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
13%
0.17 mg
Niacin (B3)
55%
8.83 mg
Folate (B9)
12%
49 μg
Vitamin C
2%
1.6 mg
Vitamin E
3%
0.5 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
49%
631 mg
Iron
43%
7.72 mg
Magnesium
80%
335 mg
Manganese
118%
2.723 mg
Phosphorus
69%
860 mg
Potassium
14%
407 mg
Sodium
1%
16 mg
Zinc
42%
4.58 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[31] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[32]

S. hispanica is described and pictured in the Mendoza Codex and the Florentine Codex, sixteenth century Aztec codices created between 1540 and 1585. Both describe and picture Salvia hispanica and its usage by the Aztec. The Mendoza Codex indicates that the plant was widely cultivated and given as tribute in 21 of the 38 Aztec provincial states. Economic historians suggest that it was a staple food that was as widely used as maize.[33]

Aztec tribute records from the Mendoza Codex, Matrícula de Tributos, and the Matricula de Huexotzinco (1560)—along with colonial cultivation reports and linguistic studies—give detail to the geographic location of the tributes, and provide some geographic specificity to the main S. hispanica growing regions. Most of the provinces grew the plant, except for areas of lowland coastal tropics and desert. The traditional area of cultivation was in a distinct area that covered parts of north-central Mexico south to Nicaragua. A second and separate area of cultivation, apparently pre-Columbian, was in southern Honduras and Nicaragua.[34]

Decorative and novelty uses

Main article: Chia Pet

In the United States, the first substantial wave of chia seed sales were tied to Chia Pets in the 1980s. These "pets" come in the form of clay figures that serve as a base for a sticky paste of chia seeds; the figures are then watered and the seeds sprout in a form suggesting the figure's fur. About 500,000 chia pets a year are sold in the US as novelties or house plants.[35]

References

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Salvia hispanica.
  1. ^ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". Retrieved 3 September 2014.
  2. ^ "Salvia hispanica L." Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 19 April 2000. Retrieved 21 March 2012.
  3. ^ a b Cahill, Joseph P. (2003). "Ethnobotany of Chia, Salvia hispanica L. (Lamiaceae)". Economic Botany. 57 (4): 604–618. doi:10.1663/0013-0001(2003)057[0604:EOCSHL]2.0.CO;2. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  4. ^ Kintzios, Spiridon E. (2000). Sage: The Genus Salvia. CRC Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-90-5823-005-8.
  5. ^ Stephanie Strom (23 November 2012). "30 Years After Chia Pets, Seeds Hit Food Aisles". New York Times. Retrieved 26 November 2012. Whole and ground chia seeds are being added to fruit drinks, snack foods and cereals and sold on their own to be baked into cookies and sprinkled on yogurt. ... {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  6. ^ Anderson, A.J.O. and Dibble, C.E. "An Ethnobiography of the Nahuatl", The Florentine Codex, (translation of the work by Fr. Bernardino de Sahagún), Books 10–11, from the Period 1558–1569
  7. ^ Mark Griffiths, Editor. Index of Garden Plants. (Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, 2nd American Edition, 1995.) ISBN 0-88192-246-3.
  8. ^ a b USDA SR-21 Nutrient Data (2010). "Nutrition facts for dried chia seeds, one ounce". Conde Nast, Nutrition Data.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ Chia: The Ord Valley's new super crop
  10. ^ USDA SR-21 Nutrient Data (2010). "Nutrition Facts and Analysis for Seeds, flaxseed". Conde Nast, Nutrition Data. Retrieved 29 November 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ USDA SR-21 Nutrient Data (2010). "Nutrition Facts and Analysis for Seeds, sesame seed kernels, dried (decorticated)". Conde Nast, Nutrition Data. Retrieved 29 November 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ The European Union, "Commission Decision of 13 October 2009 authorising the placing on the market of Chia seed(Salvia hispanica) as a novel food ingredient under Regulation (EC) No 268/97 of the European Parliament and of the Council" (L294/14) 2009/827/EC pp. 14–15 (November 11, 2009)
  13. ^ "Chewing Chia Packs A Super Punch". NPR. Retrieved 18 October 2012.
  14. ^ Albergotti, Reed. "The NFL's Top Secret Seed". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 19 October 2012.
  15. ^ "Chia (Salvia hispanica L) gel can be used as egg or oil replacer in cake formulations". J Am Diet Assoc. 110 (6): 946–9. 2010. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.011. PMID 20497788. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  16. ^ Trujillo-Hernández, C.A. (2012). "Formulation, physicochemical, nutritional and sensorial evaluation of corn tortillas supplemented with chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.)" (PDF). Czech Journal of Food Science. 30 (2): 118–125. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ a b c d e Costantini, Lara (2014). "Development of gluten-free bread using tartary buckwheat and chia flour rich in flavonoids and omega-3 fatty acids as ingredients". Food Chemistry. 165: 232–240. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.05.095. ISSN 0308-8146. Retrieved 9 October 2014. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Ulbricht C; et al. (2009). "Chia (Salvia hispanica): a systematic review by the natural standard research collaboration". Rev Recent Clin Trials. 4 (3): 168–74. doi:10.2174/157488709789957709. PMID 20028328. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  19. ^ Stephanie Strom (23 November 2012). "30 Years After Chia Pets, Seeds Hit Food Aisles". New York Times. Retrieved 26 November 2012. significantly more alpha-linolenic acid in omega-3 reached the bloodstream and was converted into eicosapentaenoic acid, a long-chain fatty acid considered good for the heart ... {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  20. ^ Nieman DC, Gillitt N, Jin F, Henson DA, Kennerly K, Shanely RA, Ore B, Su M, Schwartz S (2012). "Chia seed supplementation and disease risk factors in overweight women: a metabolomics investigation". J Altern Complement Med. 18 (7): 700–8. doi:10.1089/acm.2011.0443. PMID 22830971. Retrieved 14 May 2014. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Hu Z1, Yang X, Ho PC, Chan SY, Heng PW, Chan E, Duan W, Koh HL, Zhou S. "Herb-drug interactions: a literature review". Drugs. 2005;65(9):1239-82.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Ernst E. "Herbal medicinal products during pregnancy: are they safe?". BJOG. 2002 Mar;109(3):227-35.
  23. ^ a b Ayerza (h), Ricardo (2009). "Influence of environment on growing period and yield, protein, oil and α-linolenic content of three chia (Salvia hispanica L.) selections". Industrial Crops and Products. 30 (2): 321–324. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2009.03.009. ISSN 0926-6690. Retrieved 29 September 2014. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ a b Ayerza, Ricardo (2009). "The Seed's Protein and Oil Content, Fatty Acid Composition, and Growing Cycle Length of a Single Genotype of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) as Affected by Environmental Factors". Journal of Oleo Science. 58 (7): 347–354.
  25. ^ a b c Coates, Wayne (1998). "Commercial production of chia in Northwestern Argentina". Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 75 (10): 1417–1420. Retrieved 8 October 2014. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ a b c d Jamboonsri, Watchareewan (2012). "Extending the range of an ancient crop, Salvia hispanica L.—a new ω3 source". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 59 (2): 171–178. doi:10.1007/s10722-011-9673-x. Retrieved 29 September 2014. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ a b c d Chia (PDF). Cooperative Extension Service. University of Kentucky – College of Agriculture. 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2014.
  28. ^ a b Muñoz, Loreto A. (2013). "Chia Seed ( Salvia hispanica ): An Ancient Grain and a New Functional Food". Food Reviews International. 29 (4): 394–408. doi:10.1080/87559129.2013.818014. Retrieved 7 October 2014. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  29. ^ Cahill, Joseph P. (2005). "Human Selection and Domestication of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.)". Journal of Ethnobiology. 25 (2): 155–174. doi:10.2993/0278-0771(2005)25[155:HSADOC]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0278-0771. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  30. ^ a b c Coates, Wayne (1996). "Production potential of chia in northwestern Argentina". Industrial Crops and Products. 5 (3): 229–233. Retrieved 8 October 2014. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  32. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154.
  33. ^ Cahill 2003, p. 605
  34. ^ "A second apparently pre-Columbian cultivation area is known in southern Honduras and Nicaragua."Jamboonsri, Watchareewan; Phillips, Timothy D.; Geneve, Robert L.; Cahill, Joseph P.; Hildebrand, David F. (2011). "Extending the range of an ancient crop, Salvia hispanica L.—a new ω3 source". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. Online First. Springer. doi:10.1007/s10722-011-9673-x.
  35. ^ Chia Pet | Arts & Culture | Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonianmag.com. Retrieved on 2014-04-26.
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