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Mammoplasia occurs normally during [[puberty]] and [[pregnancy]] in women, as well as during certain periods of the [[menstrual cycle]].<ref name="JatoiKaufmann2010">{{cite book|author1=Ismail Jatoi|author2=Manfred Kaufmann|title=Management of Breast Diseases|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nsUBW3-qJ9MC&pg=PA21|date=11 February 2010|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-69743-5|pages=21–}}</ref><ref name="ArunNarendra2012">{{cite book|author1=Nagrath Arun|author2=Malhotra Narendra|author3=Seth Shikha|title=Progress in Obstetrics and Gynecology--3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AS3UBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA393|date=15 December 2012|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-93-5090-575-3|pages=393–394}}</ref><ref name="PescovitzEugster2004">{{cite book|author1=Ora Hirsch Pescovitz|author2=Erica A. Eugster|title=Pediatric Endocrinology: Mechanisms, Manifestations, and Management|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9gvBlktAT6YC&pg=PA349|year=2004|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-0-7817-4059-3|pages=349–}}</ref> When it occurs in males, it is called [[gynecomastia]] and is considered to be [[pathology|pathological]].<ref name="PescovitzEugster2004" /> When it occurs in females and is extremely excessive, it is called [[macromastia]] (also known as gigantomastia or breast hypertrophy) and is similarly considered to be pathological.<ref name="CoranCaldamone2012">{{cite book|author1=Arnold G. Coran|author2=Anthony Caldamone|author3=N. Scott Adzick|coauthors=Thomas M. Krummel, Jean-Martin Laberge, Robert Shamberger|title=Pediatric Surgery|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QpabASTwF_sC&pg=PA773|date=25 January 2012|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=0-323-09161-X|pages=773–}}</ref><ref name="Dabbs2012">{{cite book|author=David J. Dabbs|title=Breast Pathology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=53CN1aUnAOUC&pg=PA19|year=2012|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=1-4377-0604-5|pages=19–}}</ref><ref name="LaverySanfilippo2012">{{cite book|author1=J.P. Lavery|author2=J.S. Sanfilippo|title=Pediatric and Adolescent Obstetrics and Gynecology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=l9XTBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA99|date=6 December 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4612-5064-7|pages=99–}}</ref> Mammoplasia may be due to [[breast engorgement]], which is enlargement of the breasts caused by the production and storage of [[breast milk]] in association with [[lactation]] and/or [[galactorrhea]] (excessive or inappropriate production of milk).<ref name="TALWARSRIVASTAVA2002">{{cite book|author1=G. P. TALWAR|author2=L .M. SRIVASTAVA|title=TEXTBOOK OF BIOCHEMISTRY AND HUMAN BIOLOGY|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LKy0weDEFp8C&pg=PA959|date=1 January 2002|publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-203-1965-3|pages=959–}}</ref> [[Mastodynia]] (breast tenderness/pain) frequently co-occurs with mammoplasia.<ref name="Zink1988">{{cite book|author=Christoph Zink|title=Dictionary of Obstetrics and Gynecology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EQlvzV9V7xIC&pg=PA152|date=1 January 1988|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-085727-6|pages=152–}}</ref><ref name="SeegenschmiedtMakoski2009">{{cite book|author1=Michael Heinrich Seegenschmiedt|author2=Hans-Bruno Makoski|author3=Klaus-Rüdiger Trott|coauthors=Luther W. Brady|title=Radiotherapy for Non-Malignant Disorders|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zEOM5Oiucl8C&pg=PA719|date=15 April 2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-68943-0|pages=719–}}</ref>
Mammoplasia occurs normally during [[puberty]] and [[pregnancy]] in women, as well as during certain periods of the [[menstrual cycle]].<ref name="JatoiKaufmann2010">{{cite book|author1=Ismail Jatoi|author2=Manfred Kaufmann|title=Management of Breast Diseases|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nsUBW3-qJ9MC&pg=PA21|date=11 February 2010|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-69743-5|pages=21–}}</ref><ref name="ArunNarendra2012">{{cite book|author1=Nagrath Arun|author2=Malhotra Narendra|author3=Seth Shikha|title=Progress in Obstetrics and Gynecology--3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AS3UBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA393|date=15 December 2012|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-93-5090-575-3|pages=393–394}}</ref><ref name="PescovitzEugster2004">{{cite book|author1=Ora Hirsch Pescovitz|author2=Erica A. Eugster|title=Pediatric Endocrinology: Mechanisms, Manifestations, and Management|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9gvBlktAT6YC&pg=PA349|year=2004|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-0-7817-4059-3|pages=349–}}</ref> When it occurs in males, it is called [[gynecomastia]] and is considered to be [[pathology|pathological]].<ref name="PescovitzEugster2004" /> When it occurs in females and is extremely excessive, it is called [[macromastia]] (also known as gigantomastia or breast hypertrophy) and is similarly considered to be pathological.<ref name="CoranCaldamone2012">{{cite book|author1=Arnold G. Coran|author2=Anthony Caldamone|author3=N. Scott Adzick|coauthors=Thomas M. Krummel, Jean-Martin Laberge, Robert Shamberger|title=Pediatric Surgery|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QpabASTwF_sC&pg=PA773|date=25 January 2012|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=0-323-09161-X|pages=773–}}</ref><ref name="Dabbs2012">{{cite book|author=David J. Dabbs|title=Breast Pathology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=53CN1aUnAOUC&pg=PA19|year=2012|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=1-4377-0604-5|pages=19–}}</ref><ref name="LaverySanfilippo2012">{{cite book|author1=J.P. Lavery|author2=J.S. Sanfilippo|title=Pediatric and Adolescent Obstetrics and Gynecology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=l9XTBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA99|date=6 December 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4612-5064-7|pages=99–}}</ref> Mammoplasia may be due to [[breast engorgement]], which is enlargement of the breasts caused by the production and storage of [[breast milk]] in association with [[lactation]] and/or [[galactorrhea]] (excessive or inappropriate production of milk).<ref name="TALWARSRIVASTAVA2002">{{cite book|author1=G. P. TALWAR|author2=L .M. SRIVASTAVA|title=TEXTBOOK OF BIOCHEMISTRY AND HUMAN BIOLOGY|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LKy0weDEFp8C&pg=PA959|date=1 January 2002|publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-203-1965-3|pages=959–}}</ref> [[Mastodynia]] (breast tenderness/pain) frequently co-occurs with mammoplasia.<ref name="Zink1988">{{cite book|author=Christoph Zink|title=Dictionary of Obstetrics and Gynecology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EQlvzV9V7xIC&pg=PA152|date=1 January 1988|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-085727-6|pages=152–}}</ref><ref name="SeegenschmiedtMakoski2009">{{cite book|author1=Michael Heinrich Seegenschmiedt|author2=Hans-Bruno Makoski|author3=Klaus-Rüdiger Trott|coauthors=Luther W. Brady|title=Radiotherapy for Non-Malignant Disorders|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zEOM5Oiucl8C&pg=PA719|date=15 April 2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-68943-0|pages=719–}}</ref>


Mammoplasia can be a [[side effect]] of various [[drug]]s, including [[estrogen]]s,<ref name="JatoiKaufmann2010" /><ref name="Lewis1998">{{cite book|author=Robert Alan Lewis|title=Lewis' Dictionary of Toxicology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=caTqdbD7j4AC&pg=PA470|date=23 March 1998|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-56670-223-2|pages=470–}}</ref> [[antiandrogen]]s such as [[spironolactone]],<ref name="Aronson2009">{{cite book|author=Jeffrey K. Aronson|title=Meyler's Side Effects of Cardiovascular Drugs|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oeBgU3UwgZkC&pg=PA255|date=2 March 2009|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-093289-7|pages=255–}}</ref> [[cyproterone acetate]],<ref name="Martin2015">{{cite book|author=Elizabeth Martin|title=Concise Medical Dictionary|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=wb26BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA189|date=28 May 2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-968781-7|pages=189–}}</ref> [[bicalutamide]],<ref name="WalshWorthington2010">{{cite book|author1=Patrick C. Walsh|author2=Janet Farrar Worthington|title=Dr. Patrick Walsh's Guide to Surviving Prostate Cancer, Second Edition|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=o515mhW7yDcC&pg=PT258|date=31 August 2010|publisher=Grand Central Publishing|isbn=978-1-4555-0016-1|pages=258–}}</ref><ref name="Simon2004">{{cite book|author=Harvey B. Simon|title=The Harvard Medical School Guide to Men's Health: Lessons from the Harvard Men's Health Studies|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZS_OxSy11EsC&pg=PA403|date=3 February 2004|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-87182-0|pages=403–}}</ref> and [[finasteride]],<ref name="BurchumRosenthal2014">{{cite book|author1=Jacqueline Burchum|author2=Laura Rosenthal|title=Lehne's Pharmacology for Nursing Care|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=C7_NBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA802|date=2 December 2014|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-34026-7|pages=802–}}</ref><ref name="Aronson2009">{{cite book|author=Jeffrey K. Aronson|title=Meyler's Side Effects of Endocrine and Metabolic Drugs|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BWMeSwVwfTkC&pg=PA155|date=21 February 2009|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-093292-7|pages=155–}}</ref> and drugs that elevate [[prolactin]] levels such as [[D2 receptor|D<sub>2</sub> receptor]] [[receptor antagonist|antagonist]]s like [[antipsychotic]]s (e.g., [[risperidone]]), [[metoclopramide]], and [[domperidone]]<ref name="pmid18473017">{{vcite2 journal | vauthors = Torre DL, Falorni A | title = Pharmacological causes of hyperprolactinemia | journal = Ther Clin Risk Manag | volume = 3 | issue = 5 | pages = 929–51 | year = 2007 | pmid = 18473017 | pmc = 2376090 | doi = | url = }}</ref><ref name="MadhusoodananParida2010">{{cite journal|last1=Madhusoodanan|first1=Subramoniam|last2=Parida|first2=Suprit|last3=Jimenez|first3=Carolina|title=Hyperprolactinemia associated with psychotropics-a review|journal=Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental|volume=25|issue=4|year=2010|pages=281–297|issn=08856222|doi=10.1002/hup.1116}}</ref> and certain [[antidepressant]]s like [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]s (SSRIs) and [[tricyclic antidepressant]]s (TCAs).<ref name="LiebermanTasman2006">{{cite book|author1=Jeffrey A. Lieberman|author2=Allan Tasman|title=Handbook of Psychiatric Drugs|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ddcYMIJw6GoC&pg=PA75|date=16 May 2006|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-02821-6|pages=75–}}</ref><ref name="KaufmanPodolsky2013">{{cite journal|last1=Kaufman|first1=K. R.|last2=Podolsky|first2=D.|last3=Greenman|first3=D.|last4=Madraswala|first4=R.|title=Antidepressant-Selective Gynecomastia|journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy|volume=47|issue=1|year=2013|pages=e6–e6|issn=1060-0280|doi=10.1345/aph.1R491}}</ref><ref name="MadhusoodananParida2010" /> The risk appears to be less with [[serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor]]s (SNRIs) like [[venlafaxine]].<ref name="pmid9479619" /> Other drugs that have been associated with mammoplasia include [[D-penicillamine|<small>D</small>-penicillamine]], [[bucillamine]], [[neothetazone]] ([[neotizide]]/[[thiacetazone]]), [[indinavir]], [[cyclosporine]], [[marijuana]], and [[cimetidine]].<ref name="Dabbs2012">{{cite book|author=David J. Dabbs|title=Breast Pathology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=53CN1aUnAOUC&pg=PA19|year=2012|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=1-4377-0604-5|pages=19–}}</ref><ref name="DanceyKhan2008">{{cite journal|last1=Dancey|first1=Anne|last2=Khan|first2=M.|last3=Dawson|first3=J.|last4=Peart|first4=F.|title=Gigantomastia – a classification and review of the literature|journal=Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery|volume=61|issue=5|year=2008|pages=493–502|issn=17486815|doi=10.1016/j.bjps.2007.10.041}}</ref>
Mammoplasia can be a [[side effect]] of various [[drug]]s, including [[estrogen]]s,<ref name="JatoiKaufmann2010" /><ref name="Lewis1998">{{cite book|author=Robert Alan Lewis|title=Lewis' Dictionary of Toxicology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=caTqdbD7j4AC&pg=PA470|date=23 March 1998|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-56670-223-2|pages=470–}}</ref> [[antiandrogen]]s such as [[spironolactone]],<ref name="Aronson2009">{{cite book|author=Jeffrey K. Aronson|title=Meyler's Side Effects of Cardiovascular Drugs|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oeBgU3UwgZkC&pg=PA255|date=2 March 2009|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-093289-7|pages=255–}}</ref> [[cyproterone acetate]],<ref name="Martin2015">{{cite book|author=Elizabeth Martin|title=Concise Medical Dictionary|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=wb26BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA189|date=28 May 2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-968781-7|pages=189–}}</ref> [[bicalutamide]],<ref name="WalshWorthington2010">{{cite book|author1=Patrick C. Walsh|author2=Janet Farrar Worthington|title=Dr. Patrick Walsh's Guide to Surviving Prostate Cancer, Second Edition|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=o515mhW7yDcC&pg=PT258|date=31 August 2010|publisher=Grand Central Publishing|isbn=978-1-4555-0016-1|pages=258–}}</ref><ref name="Simon2004">{{cite book|author=Harvey B. Simon|title=The Harvard Medical School Guide to Men's Health: Lessons from the Harvard Men's Health Studies|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZS_OxSy11EsC&pg=PA403|date=3 February 2004|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-87182-0|pages=403–}}</ref> and [[finasteride]],<ref name="BurchumRosenthal2014">{{cite book|author1=Jacqueline Burchum|author2=Laura Rosenthal|title=Lehne's Pharmacology for Nursing Care|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=C7_NBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA802|date=2 December 2014|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-34026-7|pages=802–}}</ref><ref name="Aronson2009">{{cite book|author=Jeffrey K. Aronson|title=Meyler's Side Effects of Endocrine and Metabolic Drugs|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BWMeSwVwfTkC&pg=PA155|date=21 February 2009|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-093292-7|pages=155–}}</ref> [[growth hormone]],<ref name="Kaur2003">{{cite book|author=Sat Dharam Kaur|title=The Complete Natural Medicine Guide to Breast Cancer: A Practical Manual for Understanding, Prevention & Care|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_MAhAQAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=R. Rose|isbn=978-0-7788-0083-5|page=79}}</ref><ref name="SouzaCollett-Solberg2011">{{cite journal|last1=Souza|first1=Flavio Moutinho|last2=Collett-Solberg|first2=Paulo Ferrez|title=Adverse effects of growth hormone replacement therapy in children|journal=Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia & Metabologia|volume=55|issue=8|year=2011|pages=559–565|issn=0004-2730|doi=10.1590/S0004-27302011000800009}}</ref> and drugs that elevate [[prolactin]] levels such as [[D2 receptor|D<sub>2</sub> receptor]] [[receptor antagonist|antagonist]]s like [[antipsychotic]]s (e.g., [[risperidone]]), [[metoclopramide]], and [[domperidone]]<ref name="pmid18473017">{{vcite2 journal | vauthors = Torre DL, Falorni A | title = Pharmacological causes of hyperprolactinemia | journal = Ther Clin Risk Manag | volume = 3 | issue = 5 | pages = 929–51 | year = 2007 | pmid = 18473017 | pmc = 2376090 | doi = | url = }}</ref><ref name="MadhusoodananParida2010">{{cite journal|last1=Madhusoodanan|first1=Subramoniam|last2=Parida|first2=Suprit|last3=Jimenez|first3=Carolina|title=Hyperprolactinemia associated with psychotropics-a review|journal=Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental|volume=25|issue=4|year=2010|pages=281–297|issn=08856222|doi=10.1002/hup.1116}}</ref> and certain [[antidepressant]]s like [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]s (SSRIs) and [[tricyclic antidepressant]]s (TCAs).<ref name="LiebermanTasman2006">{{cite book|author1=Jeffrey A. Lieberman|author2=Allan Tasman|title=Handbook of Psychiatric Drugs|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ddcYMIJw6GoC&pg=PA75|date=16 May 2006|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-02821-6|pages=75–}}</ref><ref name="KaufmanPodolsky2013">{{cite journal|last1=Kaufman|first1=K. R.|last2=Podolsky|first2=D.|last3=Greenman|first3=D.|last4=Madraswala|first4=R.|title=Antidepressant-Selective Gynecomastia|journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy|volume=47|issue=1|year=2013|pages=e6–e6|issn=1060-0280|doi=10.1345/aph.1R491}}</ref><ref name="MadhusoodananParida2010" /> The risk appears to be less with [[serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor]]s (SNRIs) like [[venlafaxine]].<ref name="pmid9479619" /> Other drugs that have been associated with mammoplasia include [[D-penicillamine|<small>D</small>-penicillamine]], [[bucillamine]], [[neothetazone]] ([[neotizide]]/[[thiacetazone]]), [[indinavir]], [[cyclosporine]], [[marijuana]], and [[cimetidine]].<ref name="Dabbs2012">{{cite book|author=David J. Dabbs|title=Breast Pathology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=53CN1aUnAOUC&pg=PA19|year=2012|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=1-4377-0604-5|pages=19–}}</ref><ref name="DanceyKhan2008">{{cite journal|last1=Dancey|first1=Anne|last2=Khan|first2=M.|last3=Dawson|first3=J.|last4=Peart|first4=F.|title=Gigantomastia – a classification and review of the literature|journal=Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery|volume=61|issue=5|year=2008|pages=493–502|issn=17486815|doi=10.1016/j.bjps.2007.10.041}}</ref>


A 1997 study found an association between the SSRIs and mammoplasia in 23 (39%) of its 59 female participants.<ref name="pmid9479619">{{vcite2 journal | vauthors = Amsterdam JD, Garcia-España F, Goodman D, Hooper M, Hornig-Rohan M | title = Breast enlargement during chronic antidepressant therapy | journal = J Affect Disord | volume = 46 | issue = 2 | pages = 151–6 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9479619 | doi = | url = }}</ref> Studies have also found associations between SSRIs and galactorrhea.<ref name="pmid20527996">{{vcite2 journal | vauthors = Coker F, Taylor D | title = Antidepressant-induced hyperprolactinaemia: incidence, mechanisms and management | journal = CNS Drugs | volume = 24 | issue = 7 | pages = 563–74 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20527996 | doi = 10.2165/11533140-000000000-00000 | url = }}</ref><ref name="MondalSaha2013">{{cite journal|last1=Mondal|first1=S.|last2=Saha|first2=I.|last3=Das|first3=S.|last4=Ganguly|first4=A.|last5=Das|first5=D.|last6=Tripathi|first6=S. K.|title=A new logical insight and putative mechanism behind fluoxetine-induced amenorrhea, hyperprolactinemia and galactorrhea in a case series|journal=Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology|volume=3|issue=6|year=2013|pages=322–334|issn=2045-1253|doi=10.1177/2045125313490305}}</ref><ref name="LiebermanTasman2006">{{cite book|author1=Jeffrey A. Lieberman|author2=Allan Tasman|title=Handbook of Psychiatric Drugs|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ddcYMIJw6GoC&pg=PA75|date=16 May 2006|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-02821-6|pages=75–}}</ref><ref name="Sadock2013">{{cite book|author=Benjamin Sadock|title=Kaplan & Sadock's Pocket Handbook of Psychiatric Drug Treatment|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pmUuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT312|date=26 November 2013|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-1-4698-5538-7|pages=312–}}</ref> These side effects seem to be due to [[hyperprolactinemia]] (elevated prolactin levels) induced by these drugs, an effect that appears to be caused by [[serotonin]]-mediated inhibition of [[tuberoinfundibular pathway|tuberoinfundibular]] [[dopaminergic]] [[neuron]]s that inhibit prolactin secretion.<ref name="pmid9479619" /><ref name="pmid20527996" /><ref name="MondalSaha2013" /> It is noteworthy that the mammoplasia these drugs can cause has been found to be highly correlated with concomitant [[weight gain]] (in the 1997 study, 83% of those who experienced weight gain also experienced mammoplasia, while only 30% of those who did not experience weight gain experienced mammoplasia).<ref name="pmid9479619" /> The mammoplasia associated with SSRIs is reported to be reversible with drug discontinuation.<ref name="Sadock2013" /> SSRIs have notably been associated with a modestly increased risk of [[breast cancer]].<ref name="pmid25934397">{{vcite2 journal | vauthors = Boursi B, Lurie I, Mamtani R, Haynes K, Yang YX | title = Anti-depressant therapy and cancer risk: A nested case-control study | journal = Eur Neuropsychopharmacol | volume = | issue = | pages = | year = 2015 | pmid = 25934397 | doi = 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.04.010 | url = }}</ref> This is in accordance with the fact that higher prolactin levels have been associated with increased breast cancer risk.<ref name="HankinsonWillett1999">{{cite journal|last1=Hankinson|first1=S. E.|last2=Willett|first2=W. C.|last3=Michaud|first3=D. S.|last4=Manson|first4=J. E.|last5=Colditz|first5=G. A.|last6=Longcope|first6=C.|last7=Rosner|first7=B.|last8=Speizer|first8=F. E.|title=Plasma Prolactin Levels and Subsequent Risk of Breast Cancer in Postmenopausal Women|journal=JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute|volume=91|issue=7|year=1999|pages=629–634|issn=0027-8874|doi=10.1093/jnci/91.7.629}}</ref><ref name="Tworoger2004">{{cite journal|last1=Tworoger|first1=S. S.|title=Plasma Prolactin Concentrations and Risk of Postmenopausal Breast Cancer|journal=Cancer Research|volume=64|issue=18|year=2004|pages=6814–6819|issn=0008-5472|doi=10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-1870}}</ref>
A 1997 study found an association between the SSRIs and mammoplasia in 23 (39%) of its 59 female participants.<ref name="pmid9479619">{{vcite2 journal | vauthors = Amsterdam JD, Garcia-España F, Goodman D, Hooper M, Hornig-Rohan M | title = Breast enlargement during chronic antidepressant therapy | journal = J Affect Disord | volume = 46 | issue = 2 | pages = 151–6 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9479619 | doi = | url = }}</ref> Studies have also found associations between SSRIs and galactorrhea.<ref name="pmid20527996">{{vcite2 journal | vauthors = Coker F, Taylor D | title = Antidepressant-induced hyperprolactinaemia: incidence, mechanisms and management | journal = CNS Drugs | volume = 24 | issue = 7 | pages = 563–74 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20527996 | doi = 10.2165/11533140-000000000-00000 | url = }}</ref><ref name="MondalSaha2013">{{cite journal|last1=Mondal|first1=S.|last2=Saha|first2=I.|last3=Das|first3=S.|last4=Ganguly|first4=A.|last5=Das|first5=D.|last6=Tripathi|first6=S. K.|title=A new logical insight and putative mechanism behind fluoxetine-induced amenorrhea, hyperprolactinemia and galactorrhea in a case series|journal=Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology|volume=3|issue=6|year=2013|pages=322–334|issn=2045-1253|doi=10.1177/2045125313490305}}</ref><ref name="LiebermanTasman2006">{{cite book|author1=Jeffrey A. Lieberman|author2=Allan Tasman|title=Handbook of Psychiatric Drugs|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ddcYMIJw6GoC&pg=PA75|date=16 May 2006|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-02821-6|pages=75–}}</ref><ref name="Sadock2013">{{cite book|author=Benjamin Sadock|title=Kaplan & Sadock's Pocket Handbook of Psychiatric Drug Treatment|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pmUuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT312|date=26 November 2013|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-1-4698-5538-7|pages=312–}}</ref> These side effects seem to be due to [[hyperprolactinemia]] (elevated prolactin levels) induced by these drugs, an effect that appears to be caused by [[serotonin]]-mediated inhibition of [[tuberoinfundibular pathway|tuberoinfundibular]] [[dopaminergic]] [[neuron]]s that inhibit prolactin secretion.<ref name="pmid9479619" /><ref name="pmid20527996" /><ref name="MondalSaha2013" /> It is noteworthy that the mammoplasia these drugs can cause has been found to be highly correlated with concomitant [[weight gain]] (in the 1997 study, 83% of those who experienced weight gain also experienced mammoplasia, while only 30% of those who did not experience weight gain experienced mammoplasia).<ref name="pmid9479619" /> The mammoplasia associated with SSRIs is reported to be reversible with drug discontinuation.<ref name="Sadock2013" /> SSRIs have notably been associated with a modestly increased risk of [[breast cancer]].<ref name="pmid25934397">{{vcite2 journal | vauthors = Boursi B, Lurie I, Mamtani R, Haynes K, Yang YX | title = Anti-depressant therapy and cancer risk: A nested case-control study | journal = Eur Neuropsychopharmacol | volume = | issue = | pages = | year = 2015 | pmid = 25934397 | doi = 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.04.010 | url = }}</ref> This is in accordance with the fact that higher prolactin levels have been associated with increased breast cancer risk.<ref name="HankinsonWillett1999">{{cite journal|last1=Hankinson|first1=S. E.|last2=Willett|first2=W. C.|last3=Michaud|first3=D. S.|last4=Manson|first4=J. E.|last5=Colditz|first5=G. A.|last6=Longcope|first6=C.|last7=Rosner|first7=B.|last8=Speizer|first8=F. E.|title=Plasma Prolactin Levels and Subsequent Risk of Breast Cancer in Postmenopausal Women|journal=JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute|volume=91|issue=7|year=1999|pages=629–634|issn=0027-8874|doi=10.1093/jnci/91.7.629}}</ref><ref name="Tworoger2004">{{cite journal|last1=Tworoger|first1=S. S.|title=Plasma Prolactin Concentrations and Risk of Postmenopausal Breast Cancer|journal=Cancer Research|volume=64|issue=18|year=2004|pages=6814–6819|issn=0008-5472|doi=10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-1870}}</ref>

Revision as of 02:15, 28 July 2015

Mammoplasia

Mammoplasia, or breast enlargement, is the normal or spontaneous enlargement of the breasts.[1]

Mammoplasia occurs normally during puberty and pregnancy in women, as well as during certain periods of the menstrual cycle.[2][3][4] When it occurs in males, it is called gynecomastia and is considered to be pathological.[4] When it occurs in females and is extremely excessive, it is called macromastia (also known as gigantomastia or breast hypertrophy) and is similarly considered to be pathological.[5][6][7] Mammoplasia may be due to breast engorgement, which is enlargement of the breasts caused by the production and storage of breast milk in association with lactation and/or galactorrhea (excessive or inappropriate production of milk).[8] Mastodynia (breast tenderness/pain) frequently co-occurs with mammoplasia.[9][10]

Mammoplasia can be a side effect of various drugs, including estrogens,[2][11] antiandrogens such as spironolactone,[12] cyproterone acetate,[13] bicalutamide,[14][15] and finasteride,[16][12] growth hormone,[17][18] and drugs that elevate prolactin levels such as D2 receptor antagonists like antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone), metoclopramide, and domperidone[19][20] and certain antidepressants like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs).[21][22][20] The risk appears to be less with serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) like venlafaxine.[23] Other drugs that have been associated with mammoplasia include D-penicillamine, bucillamine, neothetazone (neotizide/thiacetazone), indinavir, cyclosporine, marijuana, and cimetidine.[6][24]

A 1997 study found an association between the SSRIs and mammoplasia in 23 (39%) of its 59 female participants.[23] Studies have also found associations between SSRIs and galactorrhea.[25][26][21][27] These side effects seem to be due to hyperprolactinemia (elevated prolactin levels) induced by these drugs, an effect that appears to be caused by serotonin-mediated inhibition of tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic neurons that inhibit prolactin secretion.[23][25][26] It is noteworthy that the mammoplasia these drugs can cause has been found to be highly correlated with concomitant weight gain (in the 1997 study, 83% of those who experienced weight gain also experienced mammoplasia, while only 30% of those who did not experience weight gain experienced mammoplasia).[23] The mammoplasia associated with SSRIs is reported to be reversible with drug discontinuation.[27] SSRIs have notably been associated with a modestly increased risk of breast cancer.[28] This is in accordance with the fact that higher prolactin levels have been associated with increased breast cancer risk.[29][30]

In puberty induction with hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and in hormonal breast enhancement, mammoplasia may be a desired effect.[31][32]

See also

References

  1. ^ Nathanson, Ira T. (1946). "Present Concepts of Benign Breast Disease". New England Journal of Medicine. 235 (15): 548–553. doi:10.1056/NEJM194610102351505. ISSN 0028-4793.
  2. ^ a b Ismail Jatoi; Manfred Kaufmann (11 February 2010). Management of Breast Diseases. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 21–. ISBN 978-3-540-69743-5.
  3. ^ Nagrath Arun; Malhotra Narendra; Seth Shikha (15 December 2012). Progress in Obstetrics and Gynecology--3. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 393–394. ISBN 978-93-5090-575-3.
  4. ^ a b Ora Hirsch Pescovitz; Erica A. Eugster (2004). Pediatric Endocrinology: Mechanisms, Manifestations, and Management. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 349–. ISBN 978-0-7817-4059-3.
  5. ^ Arnold G. Coran; Anthony Caldamone; N. Scott Adzick (25 January 2012). Pediatric Surgery. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 773–. ISBN 0-323-09161-X. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ a b David J. Dabbs (2012). Breast Pathology. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 19–. ISBN 1-4377-0604-5.
  7. ^ J.P. Lavery; J.S. Sanfilippo (6 December 2012). Pediatric and Adolescent Obstetrics and Gynecology. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 99–. ISBN 978-1-4612-5064-7.
  8. ^ G. P. TALWAR; L .M. SRIVASTAVA (1 January 2002). TEXTBOOK OF BIOCHEMISTRY AND HUMAN BIOLOGY. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 959–. ISBN 978-81-203-1965-3.
  9. ^ Christoph Zink (1 January 1988). Dictionary of Obstetrics and Gynecology. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 152–. ISBN 978-3-11-085727-6.
  10. ^ Michael Heinrich Seegenschmiedt; Hans-Bruno Makoski; Klaus-Rüdiger Trott (15 April 2009). Radiotherapy for Non-Malignant Disorders. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 719–. ISBN 978-3-540-68943-0. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  11. ^ Robert Alan Lewis (23 March 1998). Lewis' Dictionary of Toxicology. CRC Press. pp. 470–. ISBN 978-1-56670-223-2.
  12. ^ a b Jeffrey K. Aronson (2 March 2009). Meyler's Side Effects of Cardiovascular Drugs. Elsevier. pp. 255–. ISBN 978-0-08-093289-7. Cite error: The named reference "Aronson2009" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  13. ^ Elizabeth Martin (28 May 2015). Concise Medical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. pp. 189–. ISBN 978-0-19-968781-7.
  14. ^ Patrick C. Walsh; Janet Farrar Worthington (31 August 2010). Dr. Patrick Walsh's Guide to Surviving Prostate Cancer, Second Edition. Grand Central Publishing. pp. 258–. ISBN 978-1-4555-0016-1.
  15. ^ Harvey B. Simon (3 February 2004). The Harvard Medical School Guide to Men's Health: Lessons from the Harvard Men's Health Studies. Simon and Schuster. pp. 403–. ISBN 978-0-684-87182-0.
  16. ^ Jacqueline Burchum; Laura Rosenthal (2 December 2014). Lehne's Pharmacology for Nursing Care. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 802–. ISBN 978-0-323-34026-7.
  17. ^ Sat Dharam Kaur (2003). The Complete Natural Medicine Guide to Breast Cancer: A Practical Manual for Understanding, Prevention & Care. R. Rose. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-7788-0083-5.
  18. ^ Souza, Flavio Moutinho; Collett-Solberg, Paulo Ferrez (2011). "Adverse effects of growth hormone replacement therapy in children". Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia & Metabologia. 55 (8): 559–565. doi:10.1590/S0004-27302011000800009. ISSN 0004-2730.
  19. ^ Torre DL, Falorni A (2007). "Pharmacological causes of hyperprolactinemia". Ther Clin Risk Manag. 3 (5): 929–51. PMC 2376090. PMID 18473017.
  20. ^ a b Madhusoodanan, Subramoniam; Parida, Suprit; Jimenez, Carolina (2010). "Hyperprolactinemia associated with psychotropics-a review". Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental. 25 (4): 281–297. doi:10.1002/hup.1116. ISSN 0885-6222.
  21. ^ a b Jeffrey A. Lieberman; Allan Tasman (16 May 2006). Handbook of Psychiatric Drugs. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 75–. ISBN 978-0-470-02821-6.
  22. ^ Kaufman, K. R.; Podolsky, D.; Greenman, D.; Madraswala, R. (2013). "Antidepressant-Selective Gynecomastia". Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 47 (1): e6–e6. doi:10.1345/aph.1R491. ISSN 1060-0280.
  23. ^ a b c d Amsterdam JD, Garcia-España F, Goodman D, Hooper M, Hornig-Rohan M (1997). "Breast enlargement during chronic antidepressant therapy". J Affect Disord. 46 (2): 151–6. PMID 9479619.
  24. ^ Dancey, Anne; Khan, M.; Dawson, J.; Peart, F. (2008). "Gigantomastia – a classification and review of the literature". Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery. 61 (5): 493–502. doi:10.1016/j.bjps.2007.10.041. ISSN 1748-6815.
  25. ^ a b Coker F, Taylor D (2010). "Antidepressant-induced hyperprolactinaemia: incidence, mechanisms and management". CNS Drugs. 24 (7): 563–74. doi:10.2165/11533140-000000000-00000. PMID 20527996.
  26. ^ a b Mondal, S.; Saha, I.; Das, S.; Ganguly, A.; Das, D.; Tripathi, S. K. (2013). "A new logical insight and putative mechanism behind fluoxetine-induced amenorrhea, hyperprolactinemia and galactorrhea in a case series". Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology. 3 (6): 322–334. doi:10.1177/2045125313490305. ISSN 2045-1253.
  27. ^ a b Benjamin Sadock (26 November 2013). Kaplan & Sadock's Pocket Handbook of Psychiatric Drug Treatment. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 312–. ISBN 978-1-4698-5538-7.
  28. ^ Boursi B, Lurie I, Mamtani R, Haynes K, Yang YX (2015). "Anti-depressant therapy and cancer risk: A nested case-control study". Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.04.010. PMID 25934397.
  29. ^ Hankinson, S. E.; Willett, W. C.; Michaud, D. S.; Manson, J. E.; Colditz, G. A.; Longcope, C.; Rosner, B.; Speizer, F. E. (1999). "Plasma Prolactin Levels and Subsequent Risk of Breast Cancer in Postmenopausal Women". JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 91 (7): 629–634. doi:10.1093/jnci/91.7.629. ISSN 0027-8874.
  30. ^ Tworoger, S. S. (2004). "Plasma Prolactin Concentrations and Risk of Postmenopausal Breast Cancer". Cancer Research. 64 (18): 6814–6819. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-1870. ISSN 0008-5472.
  31. ^ de Muinck Keizer-Schrama SM (2007). "Introduction and management of puberty in girls". Horm. Res. 68 Suppl 5: 80–3. doi:10.1159/000110584. PMID 18174716.
  32. ^ Hartmann BW, Laml T, Kirchengast S, Albrecht AE, Huber JC (1998). "Hormonal breast augmentation: prognostic relevance of insulin-like growth factor-I". Gynecol. Endocrinol. 12 (2): 123–7. PMID 9610425.



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