Oryza glaberrima: Difference between revisions

Oryza glaberrima
	Seeds of Oryza glaberrima
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Division:	Angiosperms
Class:	Monocots
Subclass:	Commelinids
Order:	Poales
Family:	Poaceae
Subfamily:	Bambusoideae
Tribe:	Oryzeae
Genus:	Oryza
Species:	O. glaberrima
Binomial name
	Oryza glaberrima; Steud.

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Oryza glaberrima, commonly known as African rice, is one of the two domesticated rice species.^[1] It was domesticated and grown widely in West Africa,^[2] and was brought to the Americas by enslaved West African rice farmers.^[3]

While it was once almost entirely replaced by higher-yielding Asian rice,^[2] it persisted in marginal areas and for cultural reasons; for instance, it is sacred to awasena followers among the Jola people,^[4] and is a heritage variety in the United States.^[5]

Since African rice is much hardier than Asian rice, crossbreeding produced the nerica cultivars (new rice for Africa), hardy and high-yielding, whose use is now expanding across Africa.^[6] A similar crossed variety was bred in the United States in 2011.^[7] Work is being done on crosses with Indian rice varieties.^[6]

History

Humans have independently domesticated two different rice species. African rice was domesticated from wild African rice, Oryza barthii, while Asian rice (Oryza sativa), was domesticated from wild Asian rice, Oryza rufipogon.

Oryza barthii still grows wild in Africa, in a wide variety of open habitats. It is believed to have been domesticated 2000–3000 years ago in the inland delta of the Upper Niger River, in what is now Mali.^[1]^[2] It then spread through West Africa.

Wild rice seedheads shatter, scattering the rice grains to seed the next generation. Domestic rice does not shatter, making the grains easy for humans to gather. A mutation that caused rice not to shatter would probably have been the beginning of domestication.

Ibn Baṭṭūṭa recorded rice couscous in the area of present-day Mali in 1350.^{[citation needed]}

A pond in the foreground with a steep embankment blocking its spreading to the left and with trees in the background — Dikes protect the rice paddy fields from saltwater; the irrigation skimms the freshwater layer off the high tide.^[8] Similar delta cultivation techniques were used going back to at least the 15th century^[9] Karabane, Senegal, 2008.

In the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Portuguese sailed to the Southern Rivers area in West Africa and wrote that the land was rich in rice. "[T]hey said they found the country covered by vast crops, with many cotton trees and large fields planted in rice … the country looked to them as having the aspect of a pond (i.e., a marais)”. The Portuguese accounts speak of the Falupo Jola, Landuma, Biafada, and Bainik growing rice. André Álvares de Almada wrote about the dike systems used for rice cultivation,^[1] from which modern West African rice dike systems are descended.

Similar dyke in Hampton, South Carolina, United States, in 2010, long abandoned and reclaimed by woodland^[9]

African rice was brought to the Americas with the transatlantic slave trade, arriving in Brazil probably by the 1550s^[3] and in the U.S. 1784.^[10] The seed was carried as provisions on slave ships,^[3] and the technology and skills needed to grow it were brought by enslaved rice farmers. Newly imported African slaves were marketed (and sometimes even trained) for their rice-growing skills, as the high price of rice made it a major cash crop.^[8] The tolerance of African rice for brackish water meant it could be grown on coastal deltas^[11]^[9], as it was in West Africa.

There are numerous stories about how the rice came to North America,^[7] including a slave smuggling grains in her hair^[3] and a ship driven in to trade by a storm.^[9]^[12]

Asian rice came to West Africa in the late 1800s, and by the late twentieth century had largely supplanted native African rice in all but marginal areas.^[13]^[1]^{[better source needed]}

The 2007 food price shocks drove efforts to raise rice production. Rice-going regions of Africa are generally net rice importers (partly due to a lack of good local rice-processing capacity) so price increases hurt.^[14]Among the efforts to increase yield was the adoption of nerica cultivars, crossbred to specifications from local farmers using African rice varieties provided by local farmers.^[1] These were bred during the 1990s and released in the early 20th century.^[6]

Cooking

Multiple varieties of African rice are often grown so that the harvest is staggered. In this way, the harvest can be eaten fresh. Freshly harvested rice is moist, and can be puffed in fire, and eaten. Fried rice have browny color when fried this is because of the husk that is green in color when heated turns brown.^{[clarification needed]}^{[citation needed]}

African rice can be directly substituted into most Asian rice recipes, although it has a distinct flavour.^[1]

Traits

Appearance

Generally, African rice has small, pear-shaped grain, reddish bran and green to black hulls, straight, simply-branched panicles, and short, rounded ligules. There are, however, exceptions, and it can be hard to distinguish from Asian rice.^[1] For complete certainty, a genetic test can be used.

Hardiness

African rice is well adapted to the African environment. It is drought- and deep-water-resistant, and tolerates fluctuations in water depth, iron toxicity, infertile soils, severe climatic conditions, and human neglect better than Asian rice.^[1]^[15] Some varieties also mature more quickly, and may be sown directly on higher ground, eliminating the need to transplant seedlings.^[1]

African rice has profuse vegetative growth, which smothers weeds. It exhibits better resistance to various rice pests and diseases, such as blast disease, African rice gall midge (Orseolia oryzivora), parasitic nematodes (Heterodera sacchari and Meloidogyne spp.), rice stripe necrosis virus, rice yellow mottle virus, and the parasitic plant Striga.^[15]^[6]

Yield and processing

Most African rices shatter more than Asian rices, possibly because they haven't been domesticated for as long. A few varieties of African rice are as resistant to shattering as shatter-resistant Asian varieties, but most are not; on average, about half of the grains are scattered and lost. This is why yield is lower; when the heads of African rice are bagged before they become ripe, so that the shattered grains are caught in paper bags, the yield of African rice is the same as the yield of Asian rice.^[15]

Like other grains, rice may lodge, or fall over, when grain heads are full. African rice's greater height makes it more likely to lodge, although it also lets it survive in deep water, and makes it easier to harvest. African rice tend to elongate rapidly if completely submerged, which is not advantageous in regions prone to short floods, as it weakens the plant.^[16]

The grains of African rice are more brittle than those of Asian rice. The grains are more likely to break during industrial polishing.^[5] Broken rice is widely used in West Africa, and some cookbooks from the region will suggest manually breaking the grains for certain recipes,(example) but most broken rice eaten is from Asian rice, about 16% of which is broken in processing.

The genome of O. glaberrima has been sequenced, and was published in 2014^[2]. This allowed genomic as well as physiological comparison with related species, and identified some effects of some genes.^[17]^[18]

Breeding

African and Asian rice do not readily interpollinate, even under controlled conditions, and when they do, the offspring are very rarely fertile. Even the fertile crossbred offspring have low fertility. Backcrossing and fertility-enchancement techniques like embryo rescue are used to breed them. Over 3000 crosses were made as part of the NERICA program.^[6] Breeding within the species is easier, and there are uncounted numbers of African rice varieties, although the majority may have been lost.^[1]

Cultivars

African cultivars

There are a great many varieties of African rice. In the 1960s older women in Jipalom (a village in the Ziguinchor Region) could name more than ten varieties of African rice that were no longer planted, besides the half-dozen that were then still being planted. Each woman would plant multiple different varieties, to suite varying microhabitats and to stagger the harvest^[1]

Varieties, each with subtypes, include:^[1]

aspera
ebenicolorata
evoluta
rigida
rustica

The cultivars the Africa Rice Center calls TOG 12303 and TOG 9300 have low shattering, and thus yields comparable with low-shattering Asian rice varieties.^[15]

Scientists from the Africa Rice Center managed to cross-breed African rice with Asian rice varieties to produce a group of interspecific cultivars called New Rice for Africa (NERICA).^[19]

American cultivars

Carolina Gold is an heirloom cultivar grown in the early United States, sometimes known as golden-seed rice for the colour of its grains.^[10]

Long-grain gold-seed rice boasted grains 5/12ths of an inch long (up from 3/8ths of an inch), and was brought to market by planter Joshua John Ward in the 1840s. Despite its popularity, the variety was lost in the American Civil War.^[10]

Charleston Gold was released in 2011 and is a crossbreed of Carolina Gold and two Oryza sativa breeding lines called IR64 (Indica^[20]) and IR65610-24-3-6-3-2-3, which raised the yield, shortened the stem, and added an aromatic quality to the rice.^[10]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Linares, Olga F. (2002-12-10). "African rice (Oryza glaberrima): History and future potential". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 99 (25): 16360–16365. doi:10.1073/pnas.252604599. ISSN 1091-6490. PMID 12461173. Retrieved 2016-08-09.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Wang, Muhua; Yu, Yeisoo; Haberer, Georg; Marri, Pradeep Reddy; Fan, Chuanzhu; Goicoechea, Jose Luis; Zuccolo, Andrea; Song, Xiang; Kudrna, Dave; Ammiraju, Jetty S. S.; Cossu, Rosa Maria; Maldonado, Carlos; Chen, Jinfeng; Lee, Seunghee; Sisneros, Nick; de Baynast, Kristi; Golser, Wolfgang; Wissotski, Marina; Kim, Woojin; Sanchez, Paul; Ndjiondjop, Marie-Noelle; Sanni, Kayode; Long, Manyuan; Carney, Judith; Panaud, Olivier; Wicker, Thomas; Machado, Carlos A.; Chen, Mingsheng; Mayer, Klaus F. X.; Rounsley, Steve; Wing, Rod A. (2014-07-27). "The genome sequence of African rice (Oryza glaberrima) and evidence for independent domestication". Nature Genetics. 46 (9): 982–988. doi:10.1038/ng.3044. ISSN 1061-4036. Retrieved 2016-08-09.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Judith A. Carney (2004), "'With Grains in Her Hair': Rice in Colonial Brazil" (PDF), Slavery and Abolition, vol. 25, no. 1, Frank Cass, London, pp. 1–27
^ Thiam, Pierre; Sit, Jennifer (2015). Senegal: Modern Senegalese Recipes from the Source to the Bowl (Chapter extract: A System of Rice Production, Broken). Lake Isle Press.
^ ^a ^b Carney, Judith Ann (2009-06-30). Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02921-7.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Sarla, N.; Swamy, B. P. Mallikarjuna (2005-09-25). "Oryza glaberrima: A source for the improvement of Oryza sativa". ResearchGate. 89 (25). ISSN 0011-3891. Retrieved 2016-08-10.
^ ^a ^b David S. Shields. "The Golden Seed" (PDF). Rice Paper. Vol. 5, no. 1.
^ ^a ^b Jean M. West. "Rice and Slavery: A Fatal Gold Seede". Slavery in America Organization. Archived from the original on January 1, 2007. Retrieved 24 June 2013. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d The Rice Diversity Project. "Slavery on South Carolina Rice Plantations: The Migration of People and Knowledge in Early Colonial America" (PDF). {{cite web}}: External link in |author= (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Charleston Gold: A Direct Descendant of Carolina Gold, by David S. Shields. Rice Paper, Vol. 5 No. 1
^ http://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/forgotten_fields/decline_in_inland_rice
^ Storm story for Carolina Gold
^ Ologbon, O. A. C.; Ikheloa, E. E.; Akerele, E. O. (2012). "Adoption of 'Ofada'rice variety and technical efficiency of rice-based production systems in Ogun state, Nigeria" (PDF). World Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 8 (6): 624–631. Retrieved 2016-08-10.
^ S.A.Tiamiyu,S.A, Usman, A., Gbanguba, A.U., Ukwungu, M.N. and A.A. Ochigbo (2010), Assessment of quality management techniques: Toward improving competitiveness of Nigerian rice (PDF), Bamako, Mali {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |conference= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Montcho, D.; Futakuchi, K.; Agbangla, C.; Fofana, M.; Dieng, I. (2013-01-01). "Yield loss of Oryza glaberrima caused by grain shattering under rainfed upland conditions". International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences. 7 (2): 535–543. doi:10.4314/ijbcs.v7i2.10. ISSN 1997-342X. Retrieved 2016-08-09.
^ Woolhouse, Harold William (1979). Advances in botanical research. Vol. 7 Vol. 7. London: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-005907-2.
^ Zhang, Qun-Jie; Zhu, Ting; Xia, En-Hua; Shi, Chao; Liu, Yun-Long; Zhang, Yun; Liu, Yuan; Jiang, Wen-Kai; Zhao, You-Jie; Mao, Shu-Yan; Zhang, Li-Ping; Huang, Hui; Jiao, Jun-Ying; Xu, Ping-Zhen; Yao, Qiu-Yang; Zeng, Fan-Chun; Yang, Li-Li; Gao, Ju; Tao, Da-Yun; Wang, Yue-Ju; Bennetzen, Jeffrey L.; Gao, Li-Zhi (2014-11-18). "Rapid diversification of five Oryza AA genomes associated with rice adaptation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (46): –4954-E4962. doi:10.1073/pnas.1418307111. ISSN 1091-6490. PMID 25368197. Retrieved 2016-08-10.
^ Gutiérrez, Andrés Gonzalo; Carabalí, Silvio James; Giraldo, Olga Ximena; Martínez, César Pompilio; Correa, Fernando; Prado, Gustavo; Tohme, Joe; Lorieux, Mathias (2010). "Identification of a Rice stripe necrosis virus resistance locus and yield component QTLs using Oryza sativa × O. glaberrima introgression lines". BMC Plant Biology. 10: 6. doi:10.1186/1471-2229-10-6. ISSN 1471-2229. Retrieved 2016-08-10.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
^ Jones, Monty P.; Dingkuhn, Michael; Aluko/snm>, Gabriel K.; Semon, Mandé (1997-03-01). "Interspecific Oryza Sativa L. X O. Glaberrima Steud. progenies in upland rice improvement". Euphytica. 94 (2): 237–246. doi:10.1023/A:1002969932224. ISSN 0014-2336.
^ Datta, Karabi; Datta, Swapan Kumar (2006). "Indica rice (Oryza sativa, BR29 and IR64)". Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.). 343: 201–212. doi:10.1385/1-59745-130-4:201. ISSN 1064-3745. PMID 16988345.

@@ Line 16: / Line 16: @@
 |}}
-'''''Oryza glaberrima''''', commonly known as '''African rice''', is one of the two domesticated [[rice]] species.<ref name=linares>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1073/pnas.252604599| issn = 0027-8424, 1091-6490| volume = 99| issue = 25| pages = 16360–16365| last = Linares| first = Olga F.| title = African rice (''Oryza glaberrima''): History and future potential| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| accessdate = 2016-08-09| date = 2002-12-10| url = http://www.pnas.org/content/99/25/16360| pmid = 12461173}}</ref> It was once grown widely in Africa, and was brought to the Americas by [[transatlantic slave trade|African slaves]].
+'''''Oryza glaberrima''''', commonly known as '''African rice''', is one of the two domesticated [[rice]] species.<ref name=linares>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1073/pnas.252604599| issn = 1091-6490| volume = 99| issue = 25| pages = 16360–16365| last = Linares| first = Olga F.| title = African rice (''Oryza glaberrima''): History and future potential| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| accessdate = 2016-08-09| date = 2002-12-10| url = http://www.pnas.org/content/99/25/16360| pmid = 12461173}}</ref> It was domesticated and grown widely in [[West Africa]],<ref name=genome/> and was brought to the Americas by [[transatlantic slave trade|enslaved]] West African rice farmers.<ref name=carney/>
-When it was once almost entirely replaced by higher-yielding [[Oryza sativa|Asian rice]],<ref name=genome/> it persisted for cultural reasons; for instance, it is sacred to [[awasena]] followers among the [[Jola people]],<ref>Senegal: Modern Senegalese Recipes from the Source to the Bowl by Pierre Thiam and Jennifer Sit (Lake Isle Press, 2015). [http://www.southernfoodways.org/a-system-of-rice-production-broken/ Online extract about African rice]</ref> and is [[#American_cultivars|a heritage variety]] in the United States.
+While it was once almost entirely replaced by higher-yielding [[Oryza sativa|Asian rice]],<ref name=genome/> it persisted in marginal areas and for cultural reasons; for instance, it is sacred to [[awasena]] followers among the [[Jola people]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Senegal: Modern Senegalese Recipes from the Source to the Bowl (Chapter extract: A System of Rice Production, Broken)|first1=Pierre|last1=Thiam|first2=Jennifer|last2=Sit|publisher=Lake Isle Press|date=2015|url=http://www.southernfoodways.org/a-system-of-rice-production-broken}}</ref> and is [[#American_cultivars|a heritage variety]] in the United States.<ref name=blackrice/>
-Since African rice is much hardier than Asian rice, crossbreeding produced the [[NERICA|nerica cultivars]] ('''ne'''w '''ri'''ce for Afri'''ca'''), hardy and high-yielding, whose use is now expanding across Africa. A similar cross-bred variety was introduced in the United States in 2011.
+Since African rice is much hardier than Asian rice, crossbreeding produced the [[NERICA|nerica cultivars]] ('''ne'''w '''ri'''ce for Afri'''ca'''), hardy and high-yielding, whose use is now expanding across Africa.<ref name=india/> A similar crossed variety was bred in the United States in 2011.<ref name=goldenseed/> Work is being done on crosses with Indian rice varieties.<ref name=india>{{Cite journal| issn = 0011-3891| volume = 89| issue = 25| last1 = Sarla| first1 = N.| last2 = Swamy| first2 = B. P. Mallikarjuna| title = Oryza glaberrima: A source for the improvement of Oryza sativa| journal = ResearchGate| accessdate = 2016-08-10| date = 2005-09-25| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228623310_Oryza_glaberrima_A_source_for_the_improvement_of_Oryza_sativa}}</ref>
 ==History==
@@ Line 26: / Line 26: @@
 Humans have independently domesticated two different rice species. African rice was domesticated from wild African rice, ''[[Oryza barthii]]'', while Asian rice (''[[Oryza sativa]]''), was domesticated from wild Asian rice, ''[[Oryza rufipogon]]''.
-''[[Oryza barthii]]'' still grows wild in Africa, in a wide variety of open habitats. It is believed to have been domesticated 2000–3000 years ago in the [[Inner Niger Delta|inland delta]] of the Upper [[Niger River]], in what is now [[Mali]].<ref name=linares/><ref name=genome>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1038/ng.3044| issn = 1061-4036| volume = 46| issue = 9| pages = 982–988| last1 = Wang| first1 = Muhua| last2 = Yu| first2 = Yeisoo| last3 = Haberer| first3 = Georg| last4 = Marri| first4 = Pradeep Reddy| last5 = Fan| first5 = Chuanzhu| last6 = Goicoechea| first6 = Jose Luis| last7 = Zuccolo| first7 = Andrea| last8 = Song| first8 = Xiang| last9 = Kudrna| first9 = Dave| last10 = Ammiraju| first10 = Jetty S. S.| last11 = Cossu| first11 = Rosa Maria| last12 = Maldonado| first12 = Carlos| last13 = Chen| first13 = Jinfeng| last14 = Lee| first14 = Seunghee| last15 = Sisneros| first15 = Nick| last16 = de Baynast| first16 = Kristi| last17 = Golser| first17 = Wolfgang| last18 = Wissotski| first18 = Marina| last19 = Kim| first19 = Woojin| last20 = Sanchez| first20 = Paul| last21 = Ndjiondjop| first21 = Marie-Noelle| last22 = Sanni| first22 = Kayode| last23 = Long| first23 = Manyuan| last24 = Carney| first24 = Judith| last25 = Panaud| first25 = Olivier| last26 = Wicker| first26 = Thomas| last27 = Machado| first27 = Carlos A.| last28 = Chen| first28 = Mingsheng| last29 = Mayer| first29 = Klaus F. X.| last30 = Rounsley| first30 = Steve| last31 = Wing| first31 = Rod A.| title = The genome sequence of African rice (Oryza glaberrima) and evidence for independent domestication| journal = Nature Genetics| accessdate = 2016-08-09| date = 2014-09| url = http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v46/n9/full/ng.3044.html}}
+''[[Oryza barthii]]'' still grows wild in Africa, in a wide variety of open habitats. It is believed to have been domesticated 2000–3000 years ago in the [[Inner Niger Delta|inland delta]] of the Upper [[Niger River]], in what is now [[Mali]].<ref name=linares/><ref name=genome>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1038/ng.3044| issn = 1061-4036| volume = 46| issue = 9| pages = 982–988| last1 = Wang| first1 = Muhua| last2 = Yu| first2 = Yeisoo| last3 = Haberer| first3 = Georg| last4 = Marri| first4 = Pradeep Reddy| last5 = Fan| first5 = Chuanzhu| last6 = Goicoechea| first6 = Jose Luis| last7 = Zuccolo| first7 = Andrea| last8 = Song| first8 = Xiang| last9 = Kudrna| first9 = Dave| last10 = Ammiraju| first10 = Jetty S. S.| last11 = Cossu| first11 = Rosa Maria| last12 = Maldonado| first12 = Carlos| last13 = Chen| first13 = Jinfeng| last14 = Lee| first14 = Seunghee| last15 = Sisneros| first15 = Nick| last16 = de Baynast| first16 = Kristi| last17 = Golser| first17 = Wolfgang| last18 = Wissotski| first18 = Marina| last19 = Kim| first19 = Woojin| last20 = Sanchez| first20 = Paul| last21 = Ndjiondjop| first21 = Marie-Noelle| last22 = Sanni| first22 = Kayode| last23 = Long| first23 = Manyuan| last24 = Carney| first24 = Judith| last25 = Panaud| first25 = Olivier| last26 = Wicker| first26 = Thomas| last27 = Machado| first27 = Carlos A.| last28 = Chen| first28 = Mingsheng| last29 = Mayer| first29 = Klaus F. X.| last30 = Rounsley| first30 = Steve| last31 = Wing| first31 = Rod A.| title = The genome sequence of African rice (Oryza glaberrima) and evidence for independent domestication| journal = Nature Genetics| accessdate = 2016-08-09|date = 2014-07-27| url = http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v46/n9/full/ng.3044.html}}</ref> It then spread through West Africa.
-</ref> It then spread through West Africa.
-Wild rice seedheads [[Shattering (agriculture)|shatter]], scattering the rice grains to seed the next generation. Domestic rice does not shatter, making the grains easy for humans to gather. A mutation that caused rice not to shatter would have been the beginning of domestication.
+Wild rice seedheads [[Shattering (agriculture)|shatter]], scattering the rice grains to seed the next generation. Domestic rice does not shatter, making the grains easy for humans to gather. A mutation that caused rice not to shatter would probably have been the beginning of domestication.
 [[Ibn Baṭṭūṭa]] recorded [[broken rice|rice couscous]] in the area of present-day [[Mali]] in [[1350]].{{citation needed|date=August 2016}}
-[[File:Carabane-Digue.jpg|thumb|240px|left|alt=A pond in the foreground with a steep embankment blocking its spreading to the left and with trees in the background|Dikes protect the rice paddy fields from saltwater; the irrigation skimms the [[Estuarine_water_circulation#Salt_wedge_estuary|freshwater layer]] off the high tide.<ref name=Slavery>{{Cite web|url=http://slaveryinamerica.org/history/hs_es_rice.htm |title=Rice and Slavery in America |accessdate=24 June 2013 |publisher=Slavery in America Organization |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101092714/http://slaveryinamerica.org/history/hs_es_rice.htm |archivedate=January 1, 2007 }}</ref> Similar delta cultivation techniques were used going back to at least the 15th century<ref>https://ricediversity.org/outreach/educatorscorner/documents/Carolina-Gold-Student-handout.pdf</ref> [[Karabane]], [[Senegal]], 2008.]]
+[[File:Carabane-Digue.jpg|thumb|240px|left|alt=A pond in the foreground with a steep embankment blocking its spreading to the left and with trees in the background|Dikes protect the rice paddy fields from saltwater; the irrigation skimms the [[Estuarine_water_circulation#Salt_wedge_estuary|freshwater layer]] off the high tide.<ref name=Slavery>{{Cite web|url=http://slaveryinamerica.org/history/hs_es_rice.htm |title=Rice and Slavery: A Fatal Gold Seede |author=
+Jean M. West |accessdate=24 June 2013 |publisher=Slavery in America Organization |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101092714/http://slaveryinamerica.org/history/hs_es_rice.htm |archivedate=January 1, 2007 }}</ref> Similar delta cultivation techniques were used going back to at least the 15th century<ref name=southcaro>{{Cite web|title=Slavery on South Carolina Rice Plantations: The Migration of People and Knowledge in Early Colonial America|url=https://ricediversity.org/outreach/educatorscorner/documents/Carolina-Gold-Student-handout.pdf|author=[https://ricediversity.org/index.cfm The Rice Diversity Project]}}</ref> [[Karabane]], [[Senegal]], 2008.]]
-In the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Portuguese ships sailed to the [[southern rivers (west africa)|Southern Rivers]] area in [[West Africa]] and wrote that the land was rich in rice. "<nowiki>[T]</nowiki>hey said they found the country covered by vast crops, with many cotton trees and large fields planted in rice … the country looked to them as having the aspect of a pond (i.e., a marais)”. The Portuguese accounts speak of the Falupo [[Jola people|Jola]], [[Landuma]], [[Biafada]], and  [[Bainuk people|Bainik]] growing rice. [[André Álvares de Almada]] wrote about the [[dike (construction)|dike]] systems used for rice cultivation,<ref name=linares/> from which [[Carabane#Rice_cultivation|modern West African rice dike systems]] are descended.
+In the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Portuguese sailed to the Southern Rivers area in [[West Africa]] and wrote that the land was rich in rice. "<nowiki>[T]</nowiki>hey said they found the country covered by vast crops, with many cotton trees and large fields planted in rice … the country looked to them as having the aspect of a pond (i.e., a marais)”. The Portuguese accounts speak of the Falupo [[Jola people|Jola]], [[Landuma]], [[Biafada]], and  [[Bainuk people|Bainik]] growing rice. [[André Álvares de Almada]] wrote about the [[dike (construction)|dike]] systems used for rice cultivation,<ref name=linares/> from which [[Carabane#Rice_cultivation|modern West African rice dike systems]] are descended.
-[[File:Hampton-plantation-rice-dike-sc1.jpg|thumb|right|Similar dyke in [[Hampton]], [[South Carolina]], [[United States]], in 2010, long abandoned and reclaimed by woodland<ref>https://ricediversity.org/outreach/educatorscorner/documents/Carolina-Gold-Student-handout.pdf</ref>]]
+[[File:Hampton-plantation-rice-dike-sc1.jpg|thumb|right|Similar dyke in [[Hampton]], [[South Carolina]], [[United States]], in 2010, long abandoned and reclaimed by woodland<ref name=southcaro/>]]
-African rice was brought to the Americas with the [[transatlantic slave trade]], arriving in Brazil probably by the 1550s<ref name=carney/> and in the U.S. 1784.<ref name=charleston/> The seed was carried as provisions on slave ships,<ref name=carney/> and the technology and skills needed to grow it were brought by enslaved rice farmers. Newly imported African slaves were marketed (and sometimes even trained) for their rice-growing skills, as the high price of rice made it a major cash crop.<ref name=Slavery>{{Cite web|url=http://slaveryinamerica.org/history/hs_es_rice.htm |title=Rice and Slavery in America |accessdate=24 June 2013 |publisher=Slavery in America Organization |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101092714/http://slaveryinamerica.org/history/hs_es_rice.htm |archivedate=January 1, 2007 }}</ref> The tolerance of African rice for brackish water meant it could be grown on coastal deltas<ref>http://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/forgotten_fields/decline_in_inland_rice</ref><ref>https://ricediversity.org/outreach/educatorscorner/documents/Carolina-Gold-Student-handout.pdf</ref>, as it was [[Carabane#Rice_cultivation|in West Africa]].
+African rice was brought to the Americas with the [[transatlantic slave trade]], arriving in Brazil probably by the 1550s<ref name=carney/> and in the U.S. 1784.<ref name=charleston/> The seed was carried as provisions on slave ships,<ref name=carney/> and the technology and skills needed to grow it were brought by enslaved rice farmers. Newly imported African slaves were marketed (and sometimes even trained) for their rice-growing skills, as the high price of rice made it a major cash crop.<ref name=Slavery/> The tolerance of African rice for brackish water meant it could be grown on coastal deltas<ref>http://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/forgotten_fields/decline_in_inland_rice</ref><ref name=southcaro/>, as it was [[Carabane#Rice_cultivation|in West Africa]].
-There are numerous stories about how the rice came to North America,<ref name=goldenseed>[http://www.carolinagoldricefoundation.org/papers/ricepaper.5.1.2011.pdf The Golden Seed], by David S. Shields. Rice Paper, Vol. 5 No. 1</ref> including a slave hiding grains in her hair<ref name=carney>‘With Grains in Her Hair’: Rice in Colonial Brazil, Judith A. Carney. http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/geog/downloads/594/33.pdf</ref> and a ship driven in to trade by a storm.<ref>http://www.carolinaplantationrice.com/history/</ref>
+There are numerous stories about how the rice came to North America,<ref name=goldenseed>{{Cite newspaper|url=http://www.carolinagoldricefoundation.org/papers/ricepaper.5.1.2011.pdf|title=The Golden Seed|author=David S. Shields|periodical=Rice Paper|volume=5|number=1}}</ref> including a slave smuggling grains in her hair<ref name=carney>{{Cite |title='With Grains in Her Hair’: Rice in Colonial Brazil|author=Judith A. Carney |url=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/geog/downloads/594/33.pdf|periodical=Slavery and Abolition|volume=25|number=1|year=2004|pages=1–27
+|publisher=Frank Cass, London}}</ref> and a ship driven in to trade by a storm.<ref name=southcaro/><ref>[http://www.carolinaplantationrice.com/history/ Storm story for Carolina Gold]</ref>
-Asian rice came to West Africa in the late 1800s, and by the late twentieth century had largely supplanted native African rice in all but marginal areas.<ref>[http://www.idosi.org/wjas/wjas8%286%2912/9.pdf]</ref>{{better citation needed|date=August 2016}}
+Asian rice came to West Africa in the late 1800s, and by the late twentieth century had largely supplanted native African rice in all but marginal areas.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 8| issue = 6| pages = 624–631| last1 = Ologbon| first1 = O. A. C.| last2 = Ikheloa| first2 = E. E.| last3 = Akerele| first3 = E. O.| title = Adoption of ‘Ofada’rice variety and technical efficiency of rice-based production systems in Ogun state, Nigeria| journal = World Journal of Agricultural Sciences| accessdate = 2016-08-10| date = 2012| url = http://idosi.org/wjas/wjas8(6)12/9.pdf}}</ref><ref name=linares/>{{better citation needed|date=August 2016}}
-The 2007 food price shocks drove efforts to raise rice production. Rice-going regions of Africa are generally net rice importers (partly due to a lack of good local rice-processing capacity) so price increases hurt. Among the efforts to increase yield were the [[nerica]] cultivars, crossbred to specifications from local farmers using African rice varieties provided by local farmers.<ref name=linares/>
+The 2007 food price shocks drove efforts to raise rice production. Rice-going regions of Africa are generally net rice importers (partly due to a lack of good local rice-processing capacity) so price increases hurt.<ref>{{cite |url=http://www.africarice.org/workshop/ARC/3.4%20Tiamiyu%20fin.pdf|title=Assessment of quality management techniques: Toward improving competitiveness of Nigerian rice|author=S.A.Tiamiyu,S.A, Usman, A., Gbanguba, A.U., Ukwungu, M.N. and A.A. Ochigbo|conference=Second Africa Rice Congress: Innovation and Partnerships to Realize Africa’s Rice Potential|date=2010|location=Bamako, Mali}}</ref>Among the efforts to increase yield was the adoption of [[nerica]] cultivars, crossbred to specifications from local farmers using African rice varieties provided by local farmers.<ref name=linares/> These were bred during the 1990s and released in the early 20th century.<ref name=india/>
 ==Cooking==
@@ Line 54: / Line 55: @@
 |}
-Multiple varieties of African rice are often grown so that the harvest is staggered. In this way, the harvest can be eaten fresh. Freshly harvested rice is moist, and can be [[puffed rice|puffed]] in fire, and eaten. Fried rice have browny color when fried this is because of the husk that is green in color when heated turns brown {{clarify|reason=Is the rice puffed by roasting it in its husk, which turns brown?|date=August 2016}}.
+Multiple varieties of African rice are often grown so that the harvest is staggered. In this way, the harvest can be eaten fresh. Freshly harvested rice is moist, and can be [[puffed rice|puffed]] in fire, and eaten. Fried rice have browny color when fried this is because of the husk that is green in color when heated turns brown.{{clarify|reason=Is the rice puffed by roasting it in its husk, which turns brown?|date=August 2016}}{{citation needed}}
 African rice can be directly substituted into most Asian rice recipes, although it has a distinct flavour.<ref name=linares/>
@@ Line 67: / Line 68: @@
 Some varieties also mature more quickly, and may be sown directly on higher ground, eliminating the need to transplant seedlings.<ref name=linares/>
-African rice has profuse vegetative growth, which smothers weeds. It exhibits better resistance to various [[List of rice diseases|rice pests and diseases]], such as [[blast disease]], [[Cecidomyiidae|African rice gall midge (''Orseolia oryzivora'')]], parasitic [[nematode]]s (''[[Heterodera sacchari]]'' and ''[[Meloidogyne]]'' spp.), [[Benyvirus|rice stripe necrosis virus]], [[rice yellow mottle virus]], and the parasitic plant ''[[Striga (plant)|Striga]]''.<ref name=shatter/>
+African rice has profuse vegetative growth, which smothers weeds. It exhibits better resistance to various [[List of rice diseases|rice pests and diseases]], such as [[blast disease]], [[Cecidomyiidae|African rice gall midge (''Orseolia oryzivora'')]], parasitic [[nematode]]s (''[[Heterodera sacchari]]'' and ''[[Meloidogyne]]'' spp.), [[Benyvirus|rice stripe necrosis virus]], [[rice yellow mottle virus]], and the parasitic plant ''[[Striga (plant)|Striga]]''.<ref name=shatter/><ref name=india/>
 ===Yield and processing===
-Most African rices [[shattering (agriculture)|shatter]] more than Asian rices, possibly because they haven't been domesticated for as long. A few varieties of African rice are as resistant to shattering as shatter-resistant Asian varieties, but most are not; on average, about half of the grains are scattered and lost. This is why yield is lower; when the heads of African rice are bagged before they become ripe, so that the shattered grains are caught in paper bags, the yield of African rice is the same as the yield of Asian rice.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Yield loss of Oryza glaberrima caused by grain shattering under rainfed upland conditions|url = http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ijbcs/article/view/92412|journal = International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences|date = 2013-01-01|issn = 1997-342X|pages = 535–543|volume = 7|issue = 2|doi = 10.4314/ijbcs.v7i2.10|language = en|first = D.|last = Montcho|first2 = K.|last2 = Futakuchi|first3 = C.|last3 = Agbangla|first4 = M.|last4 = Fofana|first5 = I.|last5 = Dieng}}</ref>
+Most African rices [[shattering (agriculture)|shatter]] more than Asian rices, possibly because they haven't been domesticated for as long. A few varieties of African rice are as resistant to shattering as shatter-resistant Asian varieties, but most are not; on average, about half of the grains are scattered and lost. This is why yield is lower; when the heads of African rice are bagged before they become ripe, so that the shattered grains are caught in paper bags, the yield of African rice is the same as the yield of Asian rice.<ref name=shatter/>
-Like other grains, rice may lodge, or fall over, when grain heads are full. African rice's greater height makes it more likely to lodge, although it also lets it survive [[deepwater rice|in deep water]], and makes it easier to harvest. African rice tend to elongate rapidly if completely submerged, which is not advantageous in regions prone to short floods, as it weakens the plant.
+Like other grains, rice may lodge, or fall over, when grain heads are full. African rice's greater height makes it more likely to lodge, although it also lets it survive [[deepwater rice|in deep water]], and makes it easier to harvest. African rice tend to elongate rapidly if completely submerged, which is not advantageous in regions prone to short floods, as it weakens the plant.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Academic Press| isbn = 978-0-12-005907-2| last = Woolhouse| first = Harold William| title = Advances in botanical research. Vol. 7 Vol. 7| location = London| date = 1979}}</ref>
-The grains of African rice are more brittle than those of Asian rice. The grains are more likely to break during industrial polishing.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books/about/Black_Rice.html?id=YXWkwXHFWf0C Carney 2009]</ref> [[Broken rice]] is widely used in West Africa, and some cookbooks from the region will suggest manually breaking the grains for certain recipes,<ref>http://congocookbook.com/rice_recipes/index.html</ref> but most broken rice eaten is from Asian rice, about 16% of which is broken in processing.
+The grains of African rice are more brittle than those of Asian rice. The grains are more likely to break during industrial polishing.<ref name=blackrice>{{Cite book| publisher = Harvard University Press| isbn = 978-0-674-02921-7| last1 = Carney| first1 = Judith Ann| title = Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas| date = 2009-06-30|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/c/carney-rice.html}}</ref> [[Broken rice]] is widely used in West Africa, and some cookbooks from the region will suggest manually breaking the grains for certain recipes,([http://congocookbook.com/rice_recipes/ceebu_jen.html example]) but most broken rice eaten is from Asian rice, about 16% of which is broken in processing.
-The genome of ''O. glaberrima'' has been sequenced, and was published in 2014,<ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Zhang | first1 = QJ. | last2 = Zhu | first2 = T. | last3 = Xia | first3 = EH. | last4 = Shi | first4 = C. | last5 = Liu | first5 = YL. | last6 = Zhang | first6 = Y. | last7 = Liu | first7 = Y. | last8 = Jiang | first8 = WK. | last9 = Zhao | first9 = YJ. | last10 = Mao | first10 = Shu-Yan | last11 = Zhang | first11 = Li-Ping | last12 = Huang | first12 = Hui | last13 = Jiao | first13 = Jun-Ying | last14 = Xu | first14 = Ping-Zhen | last15 = Yao | first15 = Qiu-Yang | last16 = Zeng | first16 = Fan-Chun | last17 = Yang | first17 = Li-Li | last18 = Gao | first18 = Ju | last19 = Tao | first19 = Da-Yun | last20 = Wang | first20 = Yue-Ju | last21 = Bennetzen | first21 = Jeffrey L. | last22 = Gao | first22 = Li-Zhi | title = Rapid diversification of five Oryza AA genomes associated with rice adaptation | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A | volume = 111 | issue = 46 | pages = E4954–E4962 | date=Nov  2014 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1418307111 | pmid = 25368197 | display-authors = 8 }}</ref> and it has been studied in the context of the genetic diversity of the genus.<ref>http://www.pnas.org/content/111/46/E4954</ref>
+The genome of ''O. glaberrima'' has been sequenced, and was published in 2014<ref name=genome/>. This allowed genomic as well as physiological comparison with related species, and identified some effects of some genes.<ref name=diversification>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1073/pnas.1418307111| issn = 1091-6490| volume = 111| issue = 46| pages = –4954-E4962| last1 = Zhang| first1 = Qun-Jie| last2 = Zhu| first2 = Ting| last3 = Xia| first3 = En-Hua| last4 = Shi| first4 = Chao| last5 = Liu| first5 = Yun-Long| last6 = Zhang| first6 = Yun| last7 = Liu| first7 = Yuan| last8 = Jiang| first8 = Wen-Kai| last9 = Zhao| first9 = You-Jie| last10 = Mao| first10 = Shu-Yan| last11 = Zhang| first11 = Li-Ping| last12 = Huang| first12 = Hui| last13 = Jiao| first13 = Jun-Ying| last14 = Xu| first14 = Ping-Zhen| last15 = Yao| first15 = Qiu-Yang| last16 = Zeng| first16 = Fan-Chun| last17 = Yang| first17 = Li-Li| last18 = Gao| first18 = Ju| last19 = Tao| first19 = Da-Yun| last20 = Wang| first20 = Yue-Ju| last21 = Bennetzen| first21 = Jeffrey L.| last22 = Gao| first22 = Li-Zhi| title = Rapid diversification of five Oryza AA genomes associated with rice adaptation| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| accessdate = 2016-08-10| date = 2014-11-18| url = http://www.pnas.org/content/111/46/E4954| pmid = 25368197}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1186/1471-2229-10-6| issn = 1471-2229| volume = 10| pages = 6| last1 = Gutiérrez| first1 = Andrés Gonzalo| last2 = Carabalí| first2 = Silvio James| last3 = Giraldo| first3 = Olga Ximena| last4 = Martínez| first4 = César Pompilio| last5 = Correa| first5 = Fernando| last6 = Prado| first6 = Gustavo| last7 = Tohme| first7 = Joe| last8 = Lorieux| first8 = Mathias| title = Identification of a Rice stripe necrosis virus resistance locus and yield component QTLs using Oryza sativa × O. glaberrima introgression lines| journal = BMC Plant Biology| accessdate = 2016-08-10| date = 2010| url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2229-10-6}}</ref>
+===Breeding===
+African and Asian rice do not readily interpollinate, even under controlled conditions, and when they do, the offspring are very rarely fertile. Even the fertile crossbred offspring have low fertility. [[Backcrossing]] and fertility-enchancement techniques like [[embryo rescue]] are used to breed them. Over 3000 crosses were made as part of the NERICA program.<ref name=india/> Breeding within the species is easier, and there are uncounted numbers of African rice varieties, although the majority may have been lost.<ref name=linares/>
 == Cultivars ==
@@ Line 82: / Line 87: @@
 ===African cultivars===
-There are a great many varieties of African rice. In the 1960s older women in [[Jipalom]] could name more than ten varieties of African rice that were no longer planted, besides the half-dozen that were then still being planted. Each woman would plant multiple different varieties, to suite varying microhabitats and to stagger the harvest<ref name=linares/>
+There are a great many varieties of African rice. In the 1960s older women in [[Jipalom]] (a village in the [[Ziguinchor Region]]) could name more than ten varieties of African rice that were no longer planted, besides the half-dozen that were then still being planted. Each woman would plant multiple different varieties, to suite varying microhabitats and to stagger the harvest<ref name=linares/>
 Varieties, each with subtypes, include:<ref name=linares/>
@@ Line 98: / Line 103: @@
 ''See also [[Rice production in the United States]].''
-Carolina Gold is an heirloom cultivar grown in the early United States, sometimes known as golden-seed rice for the colour of its grains.
+Carolina Gold is an heirloom cultivar grown in the early United States, sometimes known as golden-seed rice for the colour of its grains.<ref name=charleston>[http://www.carolinagoldricefoundation.org/papers/ricepaper.5.1.2011.pdf Charleston Gold: A Direct Descendant of Carolina Gold], by David S. Shields. Rice Paper, Vol. 5 No. 1</ref>
-Long-grain gold-seed rice boasted grains 5/12ths of an inch long (up from 3/8ths of an inch), and was brought to market by planter Joshua John Ward in the 1840s. Despite its popularity, the variety was lost in the American Civil War.<ref name=charleston>[http://www.carolinagoldricefoundation.org/papers/ricepaper.5.1.2011.pdf Charleston Gold: A Direct Descendant of Carolina Gold], by David S. Shields. Rice Paper, Vol. 5 No. 1</ref>
+Long-grain gold-seed rice boasted grains 5/12ths of an inch long (up from 3/8ths of an inch), and was brought to market by planter Joshua John Ward in the 1840s. Despite its popularity, the variety was lost in the American Civil War.<ref name=charleston/>
-Charleston Gold was released in 2011 and is a crossbreed of Carolina Gold and two ''[[Oryza sativa]]'' breeding lines called IR64 ([[Oryza sativa var. indica|Indica]]<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16988345</ref>) and IR65610-24-3-6-3-2-3, which raised the yield, shortened the stem, and added an aromatic quality to the rice.<ref name=charleston/>
+Charleston Gold was released in 2011 and is a crossbreed of Carolina Gold and two ''[[Oryza sativa]]'' breeding lines called IR64 ([[Oryza sativa var. indica|Indica]]<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1385/1-59745-130-4:201| issn = 1064-3745| volume = 343| pages = 201–212| last1 = Datta| first1 = Karabi| last2 = Datta| first2 = Swapan Kumar| title = Indica rice (Oryza sativa, BR29 and IR64)| journal = Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.)| date = 2006| pmid = 16988345}}</ref>) and IR65610-24-3-6-3-2-3, which raised the yield, shortened the stem, and added an aromatic quality to the rice.<ref name=charleston/>
 ==References==
@@ Line 108: / Line 113: @@
 ==Further reading==
+*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/11/071128-rice-origins_2.html Slightly outdated National Geographic article on Carolina Gold]
-*[http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/sep252005/955.pdf ''Oryza glaberrima'': A source for the improvement of ''Oryza sativa'']
-*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/11/071128-rice-origins_2.html Carolina Gold]
 *{{Cite book| publisher = Douglas W. Bostick for the Carolina Gold Rice Foundation| isbn = 978-0-9829792-1-1| last1 = Shields| first1 = David S| last2 = Carolina Gold Rice Foundation| title = The golden seed: writings on the history and culture of Carolina gold rice| location = United States| date = 2010}}
-* {{Cite web| title = Black Rice — Judith A. Carney | Harvard University Press| isbn = 9780674008342| date = 2002| accessdate = 2016-08-09| url = http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674008342}}
-*[http://%5Bhttp://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2229/10/6/abstract Identification of a rice stripe necrosis virus resistance locus and yield component QTLs using Oryza sativa × O. glaberrima introgression lines]
 {{Clear}}
-[[Category:Oryza|glaberrima]]
-[[Category:Grasses of Africa]]
-[[Category:Flora of East Africa]]
-[[Category:Flora of West Africa]]
-[[Category:Rice]]
-[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
-[[Category:Plants described in 1853]]